presented  to  the 
UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
SAN  DIEGO 

by 

Mrs.  Walter  Resenhardt 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/earlymanineuropeOOrauciala 


IDEAL  SCENE  OF  TROGLODYTIC  LIFE. 


EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 


BY 


ch:a.rles  r^u. 


ILLUSTRATED, 


NEW    YORK: 
HARPER    &    BROTHERS,   PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN   SQUARK 
1876. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1876,  by  ' 
HARPER    &    BROTHERS, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


PREFACE. 


The  sketches  constituting  this  volume  appeared  last  year  in 
six  consecutive  numbers  of  Harper's  New  Monthly  Magazine. 
The  publishers  having  concluded  to  offer  them  to  the  public  in 
the  form  of  a  book,  it  became  incumbent  on  the  author  to  re- 
vise the  sheets,  and  to  make  such  alterations  and  additions  as  the 
progressive  character  of  prehistoric  investigation  in  Europe  de- 
manded. There  are  many  readers  who  have  neither  the  occasion 
nor  the  time  for  perusing  the  more  extensive  works  treating  of 
the  primitive  condition  of  man,  but  who  desire  to  obtain  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  the  subject.  For  such  readers  the  present 
condensed  account  is  intended. 

THE  AUTHOR. 

WofMngiom^  Smithsonian  Inatitution,  January,  1876. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Page 
The  Dritt 11 


CHAPTER  II. 
The  Caves 37 

CHAPTER  III. 
The  Troglodytes 59 

CHAPTER  IV. 
The  Troglodytes —  Continued 84 

CHAPTER  V. 

KrrCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LaKE   SETTLEMENTS 106 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Neolithic  Implements 137 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page 

Ideal  Scene  of  Troglodytic  Life Frontispiece. 

Skeleton  of  the  Mammoth. — St.  Peteksburg 11 

Drift  Implement  from  St.  Acheul,  Amiens  (Half  Size) 17 

Drift  Implements  from  St.  Acheul,  Amiens  (Half  Size) 19 

Flint  Flake  from  Montiers,  Amiens  (Half  Size) 20 

CosciNOPORA  Globitlaris  (Natural  Size) 21 

Drift  Implement  from  Icklingham,  Suffolk  (Half  Size) 23 

Skeleton  op  the  Gigantic  Irish  Deer 24 

Skull  of  the  Woolly-haired  Rhinoceros 26 

Skull  of  the  Cave-bear 27 

The  Mammoth 36 

Section  of  a  Part  of  the  Cave  of  Gailenreuth,  Bavaria 37 

Flint  Implements  from  Kent's  Cavern  (Half  Size) 45 

Bone  Implements  from  Kent's  Cavern  (Natural  Size) 46 

Section  of  the  Grotto  of  Aurignac 49 

The  Neanderthal  Skull  (Side  View) 53 

The  Engis  Skull  (Side  View) 53 

Perforated  Tooth  of  a  Lion. — From  the  Lowest  Deposit  op  a 
Grotto  near  Sorde,  on  the  River  Oloron,  Southern  France 

(Natural  Size) 58 

Representation  of  a  Mammoth  on  a  Plate  of  Ivory  (Reduced). 

— From  La  Madelaine 59 

Flint  Implements  prom  the  Dordogne  Caves  (Half  Size) 64 

Horn  and  Bone  Implements  prom  the  Dordogne  Caves  (nearly 

Half  Size) 68 

Hollowed  Pebble  op  Granite  (about  One-third  of  Natural  Size). 

— Les  Eyzies 71 

Ornaments  from  the  Dordogne  Caves  (nearly  Half  Size) 72 

Representations  op  Fishes  and  a  Horse  on  a  Baton  of  Reindeer 

Horn  (Length,  One  Foot). — La  Madelaine 73 

Delineations  on  Pieces  of  Antler. — La  Madelaine 75 

Fragment  of  a  Baton  of  Reindeer  Horn  terminating  in  an  Ani- 
mal's Head  (Natural  Size). — Laugerie  Basse 77 


10  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page 
Drawing  op  the  Alpine  Ibex  on  Reindeer  Antler  (Natural  Size). 

— Laugerie  Basse 78 

Head  of  the  Antilope  Saiga  engraved  on  Bone  (Natural  Size), 
— From  the   Grotto   of  Gourd  an,  near  Montrejeau,  Haute - 

Garonne , 83 

Entrance  to  the  Hohlefels  Cave,  WttRTEMBERG 84  • 

Implement  made  op  the  Jaw  op  a  Cave-bear  (nearly  Half  Size). 

— Hohlefels  Cave 90 

Reindeer  Skull  transformed  into  a  Vessel  (nearly  Half  Size). 

— Hohlefels  Cave 92 

Amulets  from  the  Hohlefels  Cave  (Half  Size) 93 

Restored  Earthen  Vessel. — From  the  Trou  du  Frontal 101 

Representations  op  Animals  from  Thayngen,  Switzerland  (Natu- 
ral Size) 103 

Figure  of  a  Browsing  Reindeer  engraved  on  Reindeer  Horn 

(Natural  Size). — From  Thayngen,  Switzerland 105 

Ideal  Representation  of  a  Swiss  Lake-village 106 

Implements  prom  the  Kjokkenmodding  at  Meilgaard Ill 

Lacustrine  Relics  of  Stone,  Horn,  and  Bone 122 

Pick-shaped  Implement  op  Stag  Horn  (20  Inches  long). — Lake  of 

Neuchatel 126 

Lacustrine  Manufactures  op  Wood  and  Clay 127 

Woven  and  Plaited  Fabrics  op  the  Lake-men 129 

Carbonized  Pear  and  Apples  prom  the  Lake-dwellings  (Natural 

Size) 135 

Tumulus  of  the  Stone  Age. — Island  of  Moen,  Denmark 137 

Danish  Cromlech 139 

Danish  Flint  Tools 141 

Flint  Arrow-heads  (Natural  Size). — Great  Britain  and  Denmark.  143 
Flint  Arrow-head  mounted  in  a  Silver  Frame  (Natural  Size). 

— Worn  as  a  Charm  in  Scotland 144 

Large  Flint  Weapons 146 

Polished  Flint  Implements  (Denmark) 147 

Polished  Stone  Celts 149 

Drilled  Stone  Axes  (One-fourth  op  Natural  Size). — Denmark...  150 

Broken  Axe  with  new  Shaft-hole  (Half  Size). — Sweden 162 

Perforated  Hammer  of  Quartzite  (Half  Size). — England 153 

Sink-stone  and  Hammer-stone  (One-third  of  Natural  Size). — Den- 
mark   154 

Ornamented  Danish  Vase  (One-third  of  Natural  Size) 156 

Geinding-stone. — Varenne-Saint-Hilaire,  France 159 


SKELETON   OF  THE   UAMMOTH. — ST.  FETEBSBUBO. 


EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  DRIFT. 

All  races  of  the  earth,  it  is  now  well  understood,  were  at 
a  certain  period  of  their  existence  so  little  advanced  in  the  arts 
of  civilization  that  necessity  compelled  them  to  employ  wood, 
bone,  horn,  shells,  but  especially  stone,  as  the  materials  for  man- 
ufacturing their  simple  tools,  weapons,  and  objects  of  personal 
adornment. 

This  period,  doubtless  everywhere  of  long  duration,  is  called 
the  Stone  Age.  It  preceded  in  Europe,  and  probably  in  certain 
parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  the  introduction  of  bronze,  which  is 


12  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

a  mixture  of  copper  and  tin,  the  latter  metal  usually  forming 
about  one-tenth  of  the  composition ;  and  bronze  again  was  final- 
ly superseded  by  iroTiy  the  most  important  of  all  metals,  and  the 
great  lever  of  civilization.  Thus  we  have  for  the  Old  World 
three  succeeding  phases  of  human  development — the  Ages  of 
Stone,  Bronze,  and  Iron  —  which  demonstrate  that  man  slowly 
and  gradually  emerged  from  a  condition  of  utter  barbarism,  and 
ultimately,  after  long -continued  struggles,  advanced  toward  the 
highest  state  of  modern  refinement.  It  is  supposed  by  many 
persons  who  have  not  paid  sufficient  attention  to  the  subject 
that  the  Stone  Age  was  a  state  of  existence  common  to  the 
whole  population  of  the  Old  World  during  a  certain  period  of 
remote  antiquity.  This  is  an  error  which  needs  correction.  The 
same  age  which  was  an  Age  of  Stone  in  one  part  of  the  East- 
ern hemisphere  may  have  been  an  Age  of  Metal  in  another. 
Thus  certain  nations  of  Europe  may  have  been  so  far  advanced 
that  they  used  bronze,  while  others,  as  yet  unacquainted  with 
metallurgy,  continued  to  employ  stone  and  other  available  ma- 
terials in  the  fabrication  of  their  implements.  The  various 
degrees  of  technical  ability  attained  by  the  aboriginal  inhab- 
itants of  the  American  continent  at  the  time  of  its  discovery 
may  be  adduced  as  an  illustration.  The  North  American  In- 
dians north  of  Mexico  lived,  as  every  one  knows,  in  an  Age  of 
Stone,  fashioning  out  of  this  material  their  arrow  and  spear 
heads,  hatchets,  cutting  implements,  agricultural  tools,  and  smok- 
ing utensils.  It  is  true,  they  employed  copper  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent for  similar  purposes,  chiefly,  however,  for  objects  of  orna- 
ment. Yet  they  lacked,  as  far  as  investigations  hitherto  have 
shown,  the  knowledge  of  melting  that  metal ;  they  simply  ham- 
mered masses  of  native  copper,  obtained  from  the  shores  of  Lake 
Superior,  into  the  required  shapes,  and  consequently  treated  cop- 
per as  malleable  stone.  The  more  civilized  Mexicans  and  Peru- 
vians, on  the  other  hand,  were  skillful  workers  in  various  metals, 


THE  DRIFT.  13 

such  as  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  tin,  the  last  two  of  which  they 
melted  together,  thus  producing  bronze,  a  composition,  as  ex- 
perience taught  them,  much  harder  than  pure  copper. 

Yet  even  these  more  advanced  nations  of  America,  notwith- 
standing their  knowledge  and  frequent  application  of  bronze, 
still  continued  to  use  to  a  great  extent  tools  and  weapons  of 
stone  at  the  time  when  their  countries  were  invaded  by  the 
Spaniards,  who  consequently  witnessed  that  curious  epoch  in 
American  civilization  which  may  be  called  the  transition  from 
the  Age  of  Stone  to  that  of  Bronze.  The  wretched  inhabitants 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego  are  even  now  living  in  an  Age  of  Stone, 
and  so  were  many  of  the  remote  North  American  tribes  not 
long  ago,  before  the  wave  of  emigration  from  the  East  had  reach- 
ed them.  As  for  irouj  no  facts  have  come  to  light  which  would 
indicate  that  the  extraction  of  this  metal  from  its  ores  was  prac- 
ticed by  any  of  the  nations  and  tribes  of  America.  The  intro- 
duction of  iron  in  this  continent  is  coeval  with  the  arrival  of 
colonists  from  Europe.  In  the  Old  World,  likewise,  the  intro- 
duction of  bronze  caused  nowhere  a  sudden  discontinuance  of 
the  manufacture  and  use  of  stone  instruments,  a  fact  proved  by 
their  frequent  occurrence  in  burial-places  and  other  deposits  of 
the  Bronze  Age;  and  even  in  times  when  the  superior  qualities 
of  iron  were  already  known,  implements  of  stone  had  not  yet 
entirely  fallen  into  disuse.  We  lay  some  stress  on  these  facts, 
lest  the  reader  might  be  led  into  the  error  of  looking  upon  the 
three  ages  as  sharply  defined  phases  in  the  development  of  man 
in  the  Eastern  hemisphere. 

Among  the  recent  results  of  archaeological  investigation  in 
Europe  which  are  especially  calculated  to  throw  light  on  the 
primitive  condition  of  man,  we  mention  first  the  discovery  of 
rude  flint  implements  associated  with  the  bones  of  extinct  ani- 
mals, such  as  the  mammoth,  the  rhinoceros,  and  others,  in  the 
undisturbed  drift  -  deposits  along  certain  rivers  in  France  and 


14  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

England.  The  drift-beds  inclosing  those  implements  and  animal 
remains  are  formed  by  layers  of  sand,  gravel,  and  loam,  which 
extend  along  the  slopes  of  river  valleys,  and  reach  sometimes 
to  a  height  of  two  hundred  feet  above  the  present  water-levels, 
although  their  usual  elevation  does  not  exceed  forty  feet.  These 
beds  of  drift  evidently  were  not  deposited  by  the  sea,  but  by 
former  or  still  existing  rivers,  for  the  shells  which  they  contain 
belong  to  land  and  fresh -water  species,  and  not  to  such  as  in- 
habit the  sea.  The  materials  composing  them,  moreover,  consist 
of  fragments  of  the  same  rocks  which  occur  in  the  areas  drained 
by  the  rivers  themselves,  a  circumstance  affording  another  proof 
of  their  having  been  deposited  by  these  waters.  The  latter,  of 
course,  had  formerly  a  greater  expanse,  and  ran  at  much  higher 
levels,  indicated  in  each  case  by  the  height  of  the  deposits  along 
their  banks.  Hence  the  enormous  time  may  be  inferred  which 
it  required  to  excavate  the  present  river  channels.  The  climate 
of  Europe,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  was  much  colder  when 
those  deposits  were  in  progress  of  forming  than  it  is  at  present. 
Every  spring,  consequently,  the  melting  of  the  accumulated 
masses  of  ice  and  snow  caused  the  rivers  to  rise  to  considerable 
heights,  flooding  extensive  portions  of  the  adjacent  country, 
deepening  the  river  channels,  and  spreading  over  the  valleys 
the  debris  of  the  surface,  together  with  the  remains  of  animals 
destroyed  by  the  floods. 

The  knowledge  of  the  occurrence  of  flint  tools  in  such  strata 
dates  as  far  back  as  the  beginning  of  the  last  century;  but  the 
importance  attached  to  the  subject  was  then  overlooked,  and 
Only  at  the  present  time  the  full  significance  of  these  unpre- 
tending relics  of  by-gone  ages  has  been  duly  recognized.  The 
celebrated  Cuvier,  it  is  well  known,  denied,  or,  to  say  the  least, 
doubted,  the  existence  of  fossil  human  remains,  and  his  author- 
ity fixed,  as  it  were,  the  opinion  of  men  of  science ;  for  it  is  a 
general  experience  that  prominent  investigators  leave  not  only 


THE  DRIFT.  15 

their  achievements,  but  likewise  their  errors,  as  inheritances  to 
the  world. 

About  1715  a  spear-head-shaped  flint  implement,  still  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum,  was  found  with  the  skeleton  of 
an  elephant  in  the  gravel  on  which  London  stands;  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  Mr.  John  Frere  discovered 
many  flint  articles  of  similar  form  in  a  fresh -water  fonnation 
near  Hoxne,  Suffolk,  in  conjunction  with  the  jaw-bone  and  teeth 
of  what  he  called  "  an  enormous  unknown  animal,"  which  proved 
to  be  an  elephant.  The  flint  implements  occurred  in  this  place 
in  great  number — about  five  or  six  in  a  square  yard — and  the 
manner  in  which  they  lay  seemed  to  favor  the  conclusion  that 
they  had  been  manufactured  on  the  spot.  The  formation  con- 
sisted of  stratified  loam  and  gravel,  the  latter  containing  the 
flint  tools  and  the  fossil  bones.  The  bed  of  loam  was  employed 
at  the  time  of  Mr.  Frere  in  the  fabrication  of  brick ;  and  even 
about  1860,  when  some  English  geologists  examined  the  local- 
ity, the  extraction  of  clay  was  still  going  on  in  the  same  brick- 
pit,  and  it  was  ascertained,  moreover,  that  the  layers  still  yield- 
ed from  time  to  time  these  instruments  of  flint. 

Mr.  Frere's  discovery,  however,  was  little  heeded  at  the  time 
when  it  occurred,  and  soon  vanished  from  the  memory  of  men 
of  science,  until  it  was  brought  again  to  their  notice  many  years 
afterward,  when  Boucher  de  Perthes  made  known  the  important 
results  of  his  investigations.  This  enthusiastic  and  indefatigable 
French  savant  began  in  1841  his  examination  of  the  gravel-beds 
in  the  valley  of  the  Somme,  at  Menchecourt,  near  Abbeville, 
Picardy,  during  which  he  found  in  these  strata  a  great  number 
of  flint  tools  of  antique  type,  in  connection  with  the  remains 
of  the  mammoth  and  other  extinct  quadrupeds,  under  circum- 
stances which  warranted  the  conclusion  that  the  manufacturers 
of  the  tools  and  those  animals  lived  at  the  same  period.  Insti- 
gated by  the   success  of  Boucher  de  Perthes,  Dr.  Rigollot,  of 


16  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

Amiens,  in  the  same  valley,  searched  the  drift -beds  near  that 
place,  especially  those  of  St.  Acheul,  in  the  suburbs  of  Amiens, 
and  collected  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  several  hundred  speci- 
mens of  flint  tools,  resembling  in  the  rudeness  of  their  make 
those  from  the  gravel -pits  of  Abbeville.  Though  flint  imple- 
ments of  similar  character  were  afterward  found  in  corresponding 
deposits  in  France,  and  quite  frequently  in  England,  those  of 
the  valley  of  the  Somme,  on  account  of  their  abundance,  have 
attracted  the  greatest  share  of  attention,  and  therefore  have  be- 
come types  of  the  whole  class. 

The  prevailing  geological  formation  in  the  North  of  France, 
and  especially  in  Picardy,  is  the  chalk,  containing  here,  as  else- 
where, those  well-known  nodules  of  flint,  the  formerly  much- 
sought  material  of  which,  before  the  introduction  of  percussion- 
caps  and  lucifer-matches,  gun-flints  and  "strike -a -lights"  were 
manufactured.  In  times  long  past,  before  the  district  of  the 
Somme  exhibited  its  present  geological  features,  tertiary  depos- 
its, chiefly  of  a  sandy  character,  covered  these  cretaceous  rocks. 
The  tertiary  strata,  however,  mostly  have  been  carried  away  by 
the  action  of  water;  and  their  materials,  converted  by  solution 
and  attrition  into  clayey  substance,  sand,  and  gravel,  settled, 
with  other  debris,  upon  the  denuded  chalk,  and  thus  contrib- 
uted to  the  formation  of  the  drift  in  the  valley,  through  which 
the  river  has  scooped  its  channel.  The  valley  is  about  a  mile 
wide  between  Amiens  and  Abbeville,  and  increases  in  width 
as  it  approaches  the  British  Channel,  into  which  the  Somme 
empties. 

At  Menchecourt,  near  Abbeville,  where  Boucher  de  Perthes 
discovered  the  first  flint  tools,  sometimes  twenty  or  thirty  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Sir  Charles  Lyell  has  pointed  out 
three  distinct  layers,  which  we  will  describe  in  a  few  words, 
proceeding  in  descending  order : 

1.  Brown   clay,  with   angular  flints,  and  occasionally  chalk 


THE  DRIFT. 


17 


DRIFT  IMFLEUENT  FROM   ST.  ACHECL,  AHIENS  (hAI^F   SIZe). 

rubble,  unstratified,  following  the  slope  of  the  hill,  of  very  va- 
rying thickness,  from  two  to  five  feet  and  upward. 

2.  Calcareous  loam,  buff- colored,  resembling  loess,  for  the 
most  part  unstratified,  in  some  places  with  slight  traces  of 
stratification,  containing  fresh-water  and  land  shells,  with  bones 
of  elephants,  etc. ;  thickness  about  fifteen  feet. 

3.  Alternations  of  beds  of  gravel,  marl,  and  sand,  with  fresh- 
water and  land  shells,  and  in  some  of  the  lower  sands  a  mixture 
of  marine  shells;  also  bones  of  elephant,  rhinoceros,  etc.,  and 
flint  implements ;  thickness  about  twelve  feet. 

This  third  layer  rests  immediately  upon  the  chalk.  The 
mixture  of  fluviatile  and  marine  shells  observed  in  it  proves, 
according  to   Lyell,  that  the   sea  sometimes  gained   upon   the 

2 


18  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUBOPE. 

river,  whether  at  high  tides  or  when  the  fresh-water  was  less  in 
quantity  during  the  dry  season,  and  sometimes,  perhaps,  when 
the  land  was  slightly  depressed  in  level.  All  these  accidents 
might  occur  again  and  again  at  the  mouth  of  any  river,  and  give 
rise  to  alternations  of  fluviatile  and  marine  strata. 

The  flint  implements  themselves  are  very  rude,  and  obvious- 
ly indicative  of  the  low  and  barbarous  state  of  those  who  fash- 
ioned them.  They  were  split  from  the  nodules  of  flint  so  fre- 
quently occurring  in  the  chalk ;  some  of  them  even  exhibit  por- 
tions of  the  chalky  crust  which  always  surrounds  these  flinty 
bodies.  The  two  prevailing  forms  of  the  flint  tools  are  those  of 
roughly  wrought  spear -heads  and  of  oval  or  almond-shaped 
disks,  sharpened  around  their  edges,  the  latter  kind  being  de- 
nominated "  hatchets,"  from  their  resemblance  to  stone  hatchet 
blades  still  in  use  among  very  low  tribes  of  savages.  The  im- 
plements of  the  spear -head  type  are  more  abundant  at  Ami- 
ens, while  the  so-called  hatchets  prevail  near  Abbeville.  Besides 
these,  numerous  flakes  of  various  shapes  and  sizes  occur  in  the 
drift  of  the  Somme,  which  were  in  most  cases  the  result  of  a 
single  blow,  being  split  off  during  the  process  of  fashioning  the 
more  finished  tools  already  mentioned.  Many  of  these  flakes 
doubtless  served  for  cutting,  scraping,  and  other  kindred  pur- 
poses. The  shape  of  the  implements  designated  as  hatchets  and 
spear-heads  depended,  in  all  probability,  much  on  the  original 
outline  of  the  chalk-flints  from  which  they  were  manufactured. 
These  nodules  are  mostly  of  a  roundish  or  elongated  form ;  and 
in  making  their  tools  the  ancient  people  of  the  Somme  valley 
knocked  two  of  them  together  until  flattish  fragments  of  suita- 
ble size  came  off,  which  they  brought  into  the  required  shape  by 
blows  aimed  at  their  circumference.  Hence  many  of  the  imple- 
ments are  not  exactly  of  the  oval  or  spear-like  form,  but  present 
shapes  intermediate  between  them.  As  a  rule,  the  narrower  or 
more  pointed  end  of  these  instruments  is  the  one  adapted  for 


THE  DRIFT. 


19 


cutting.  The  tools  of  the  spear-head  type  usually  vary  in  length 
from  six  to  eight  inches,  though  larger  ones  have  been  found. 
Many  of  them  seem  to  have  been  used  vrith  the  hand,  the  end 
opposite  the  pointed  part  being  often  thick  and  massive  to  facil- 
itate handling;  and  in  some  the  lower  end  has  not  been  fash- 
ioned at  all,  but  has  been  left  in  its  original  state,  when  the 
form  of  the  flint  presented  a  suitable  handle.  Others,  which 
are  worked  thinner  at  the  lower  end,  perhaps  were  fastened  to 
poles,  and  thus  actually  served  as  spear-heads. 


DRIFT   IMPLEMENTS    FROM    ST.  ACHEUL,  AMIENS   (hALF    SIZe). 

Considering  the  strength  and  character  of  the  quadrupeds  sur- 
rounding these  primeval  people,  it  seems  hardly  probable  that 
they  could  have  dispensed  with  long  weapons  for  attack  and 
defense.  A  number  of  the  implements  called  hatchets  were  in- 
serted, it  is  believed,  in  cleft  sticks,  and  fastened  with  the  sinews 
or  hides  of  animals,  thus  fulfilling  the  purpose  which  their  name 
implies.  Such  primitive  weapons  were  common  among  many 
races  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  as  they  are,  indeed,  even  in 


20 


EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 


FLINT  FLAKE   FROM   MON- 


our  days  among  tlie  natives  of  Australia;  and  the  grooved 
North  American  stone  tomahawk,  around  which  a  withe  was 
bent  for  a  handle,  presents  but  a  higher  devel- 
opment of  the  rude  hatchet  of  the  drift. 

It  must  be  particularly  stated  that  none 
of  the  implements  found  in  the  river  drift  are 
provided  with  ground  edges,  and  that  no  oth- 
er process  but  that  of  chipping  was  employ- 
ed in  shaping  them.  The  art  of  grinding  and 
polishing  utensils  of  stone  belongs  to  a  much 
later  phase  of  the  European  Stone  Age,  when 
a  variety  of  characteristic  and  well-defined 
tools  and  weapons  had  superseded  the  primi- 
J.  tive  productions  of  the  savage  men  who  w^ere 
TIERS,  AMIENS  (half  qqq^q\.  wlth  thc  extluct  auimals.    Archgeolo- 

size). 

gists,  therefore,  divide  the  European  Stone  Age 
into  a  period  of  chipped  and  one  of  ground  stone,  or,  technically 
speaking,  into  a  paleolitliic  (old-stone)  and  a  neolithic  (new-stone) 
period.  These  distinctions  will  be  more  minutely  explained  here- 
after. 

The  appearance  of  the  drift  implements  indicates  their  high 
antiquity.  Originally  split  from  a  dull  dark-gray  flint,  their  sur- 
faces are  now  altered  in  various  ways,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  matrix  which  inclosed  them.  Those  that  are  found  in 
chalky  or  silicious  sands  have  a  polished,  glossy  appearance,  al- 
together different  from  that  of  newly  broken  flint ;  others,  taken 
from  ochreous  or  ferruginous  sands,  are  stained  with  yellow  or 
brown  colors ;  in  some  beds  they  appear  white  and  porcelain-like, 
and  in  others  they  are  covered  with  a  calcareous  film.  Occa- 
sionally the  surface  of  the  flint  tools  is  marked  with  those  dark 
moss  or  tree-like  figures  called  dendrites,  which  owe  their  origin 
to  infiltrations  of  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese;  and  though 
these  markings  furnish  no  proof  of  very  high  antiquity,  having 


THE  DRIFT.  21 

been  noticed  on  bones  obtained  from  later  Roman  graves,  they 
are  nevertheless,  says  Lyell,  a  useful  test  of  antiquity  when  sus- 
picions are  entertained  of  the  workmen  having  forged  the  hatchets 
they  offer  for  sale.  Generally  speaking,  the  flint  tools  exhibit  the 
same  alterations  of  surface  which  characterize  the  flint  pebbles 
found  in  connection  with  them.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
they  are  coeval  with  the  beds  of  gravel  in  which  they  are  in- 
closed. 

Though  we  have  already  attempted  to  indicate  some  of  the 
probable  uses  to  which  the  flint  tools  were  applied,  it  must  not 
be  inferred  that  people  in  as  low  a  state  as  the  drift  men  were 
particularly  choice  in  the  employment  of  their  scanty  utensils, 
which,  on  the  contrary,  as  we  may  suppose,  had  to  serve  for  vari- 
ous purposes,  as  the  exigencies  of  the  moment  required.  "  It  is 
useless,"  says  Sir  John  Lubbock, "  to  speculate  upon  the  use  made 
of  these  rude  yet  venerable  weapons.  Almost  as  well  might  we 
ask,  to  what  use  could  they  not  be  applied?  Numerous  and 
specialized  as  are  our  modern  instruments,  who  would  care  to 
describe  the  exact  use  of  a  knife  ?  But  the  primitive  savage  had 
no  such  choice  of  tools.  We  see  before  us  perhaps  the  whole 
contents  of  his  workshop;  and  with  these  implements,  rude  as 
they  seem  to  us,  he  may  have  cut  down  trees,  scooped  them  out 
into  canoes,  grubbed  up  roots,  attacked  his  enemies,  killed  and 
cut  up  his  food,  made  holes  through  the  ice  in  winter,  prepared 
fire-wood,  etc." 

The  implements  just  described  constitute  the  only  remains  of 
human  industry  thus  far  found  in  the  river  drift  of 
Picardy,  although  it  may  be  presumed  that  the  prime- 
val people  of  the  Somme  valley  employed  various  ob- 
jects made  of  wood,  bone,  and  horn ;  but  these,  being 
less  durable  than  the  almost  indestructible  flint,  have  (natural 
perished.  Strange  enough,  there  is  some  reason  for  the 
supposition  that  the  men  who  once  dwelt  in  this  region,  notwith- 


COSCINOPORA 
GLOBULARI8 


22  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

standing  their  extremely  low  state,  already  evinced  that  love  for 
personal  adornment  which  seems  to  be  innate  in  human  nature, 
and  has  been  met  even  among  the  least  advanced  of  mankind. 
There  occurs  in  the  cretaceous  formation  a  small  globular  petri- 
faction, Coscinopora  glohularis^  which  is  either  provided  by  nat- 
ure with  a  hole  passing  through  its  middle,  or  has  frequently  on 
two  opposite  sides  small  cavities,  the  beginnings,  as  it  were,  of 
perforations,  the  material  being  softer  and  more  spongy  in  the 
direction  of  the  axis.  Thus  nature  furnished  objects  which  al- 
ready presented  beads,  or  could  easily  be  converted  into  such,  and 
it  seems  that  the  men  of  the  drift  actually  employed  them  as  or- 
naments; for  Dr.  Rigollot,  in  searching  the  gravel-beds  of  Amiens, 
often  found  small  groups  or  heaps  of  them  in  one  place,  all  perfo- 
rated, just  as  if  they  had  been  strung  together  at  the  time  when 
they  were  brought  to  the  spot.  The  writer  has  in  his  possession 
a  number  of  such  petrifactions,  exhibiting  perfect  as  well  as  in- 
cipient perforations,  obtained  from  the  chalk  of  the  Baltic  island 
of  Riigen,  where  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  used  in  the  same 
manner  by  the  ancient  inhabitants. 

During  the  years  following  the  important  discoveries  of 
Boucher  de  Perthes  and  Dr.  Rigollot,  drift  implements  analo- 
gous to  those  of  the  Somme  have  been  found  in  various  parts  of 
England,  often  in  association  with  the  remains  of  extinct  ani- 
mals, and  thus  furnishing,  in  corroboration  of  the  results  obtain- 
ed by  the  French  savants,  the  evidence  of  man's  co- existence 
with  creatures  belonging  to  a  long-lost  fauna.  The  English  im- 
plements occur,  according  to  Mr.  John  Evans,  "  in  beds  of  gravel, 
sand,  and  clay,  for  the  most  part  on  the  slopes  of  existing  river 
valleys,  though  occasionally  at  considerable  distances  from  any 
stream  of  water,  and  in  some  rare  cases  not  thus  imbedded,  but 
lying  on  the  surface  of  the  ground."  Having  gone  into  some  de- 
tail in  describing  the  drift  tools  of  Picardy,  we  can  not  enter  in 
this  sketch  upon  the  subject  of  similar  British  implements,  but 


THE  DRIFT. 


23 


DRIFT  IMPLEMENT  FROM   ICKLINGHAM,  SUFFOLK   (hALF   SIZE). 

must  refer  the  reader  to  Mr.  John  Evans's  excellent  work  on  the 
"Ancient  Stone  Implements,  Weapons,  and  Ornaments  of  Great 
Britain,"  in  which  the  various  river  valleys  and  other  localities 
yielding  drift  implements  are  enumerated,  and  the  implements 
themselves  carefully  figured  and  described. 

We  must  now  proceed  to  give  some  account  of  the  principal 
animals,  extinct  as  well  as  still  living,  that  co-existed  with  man 
during  the  drift,  in  order  to  show  more  clearly  what  position  hu- 
man beings  occupied  in  that  remote  period. 

The  Mammoth  (^Ehphas  prirnigenius). — An  elephant  of  huge 
size,  with  enormous  tusks,  much  more  curved  than  those  of  exist- 
ing species.  The  remains  of  this  animal,  which  became  extinct 
in  Europe  at  so  early  a  period  that  not  the  slightest  tradition  of 
its  former  existence  has  survived,  are  found  in  the  Old  World 
from  the  northernmost  parts  of  Siberia  to  the  extreme  West  of 
Europe;  it  ranged  as  far  southward  as  the  North  of  Italy,  but 
does  not  seem  to  have  existed  south  of  the  Pyrenees.  Bones  of 
the  mammoth  also  occur  in  North  America,  from  Behring  Strait 


24 


EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 


to  Texas.  These  elephants  abounded  in  Siberia,  where  their  car- 
casses repeatedly  have  been  found  imbedded  in  ice,  the  flesh  and 
skin  still  well  preserved.  Toward  the  beginning  of  this  centu- 
ry, a  Tungusian  hunter  discovered  one  inclosed  by  ice  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Lena.  He  waited  several  years  until  the 
animal  had  become  exposed  by  the  melting  of  its  icy  shroud,  and 
then  cut  off  its  tusks,  which  he  sold  for  fifty  rubles.  The  flesh 
of  the  body  afforded  for  some  time  food  to  the  dogs  kept  by  the 
people  of  the  neighborhood,  and  to  white  bears,  wolves,  foxes, 
and  other  wild  beasts,  until  finally  Mr.  Adams,  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  St.  Petersburg,  put  a  stop  to  these  ravages,  and  took 
pains  to  save  the  remains  from  further  destruction.  The  skele- 
ton was  almost  complete,  excepting  a  fore-leg  which  the  animals 


SKBLGTON   OF  TBB   GIGANTIC  IRISH  DEBB. 


THE  DRIFT.  25 

of  prey  had  carried  off.  "According  to  tlie  assertion  of  the  Tun- 
gusian  discoverer,"  says  Professor  Owen,  "  the  animal  was  so  fat 
that  its  belly  hung  down  below  the  joints  of  the  knees.  This 
mammoth  was  a  male,  with  a  long  mane  on  the  neck ;  the  tail 
was  much  mutilated,  only  eight  out  of  twenty-eight  or  thirty  cau- 
dal vertebrae  remaining;  the  proboscis  was  gone,  but  the  places 
of  the  insertion  of  its  muscles  were  visible  on  the  skull ;  the  skin, 
of  which  about  three-fourths  were  saved,  was  of  a  dark-gray  color, 
covered  with  a  reddish  wool,  and  coarse  long  black  hairs.  The 
dampness  of  the  spot  where  the  animal  had  lain  so  long  had  in 
some  degree  destroyed  the  hair.  The  entire  skeleton,  from  the 
fore  part  of  the  skull  to  the  end  of  the  mutilated  tail,  measured 
sixteen  feet  four  inches;  its  height  was  nine  feet  four  inches. 
The  tusks  measured  along  the  curve  nine  feet  six  inches,  and  in 
a  straight  line  from  the  base  to  the  point  three  feet  seven  inches. 
Mr.  Adams  detached  the  skin  on  the  side  on  which  the  animal 
had  lain,  which  was  well  preserved ;  the  weight  of  the  skin  was 
such  that  ten  persons  found  great  difficulty  in  transporting  it  to 
the  shore.  After  this  the  ground  was  dug  in  different  places  to 
ascertain  whether  any  of  its  bones  were  buried,  but  principally 
to  collect  all  the  hairs  which  the  white  bears  had  trodden  into 
the  ground  while  devouring  the  flesh,  and  more  than  thirty-six 
pounds'  weight  of  hair  was  thus  recovered.  The  tusks  were  pur- 
chased at  Yakutsk,  and  the  whole  then  expedited  to  St.  Peters- 
burg ;  the  skeleton  is  now  mounted  in  the  Museum  of  the  Petro- 
politan  Academy."* 

Mammoth  bones  are  found  in  great  number  in  Siberia,  and 
the  tusks  form  a  valuable  article  of  commerce,  furnishing  the  so- 
called  fossil  ivory.  Thousands  of  tusks  have  been  collected  and 
used  in  turning,  yet  others  are  still  procured  and  sold  in  great 
plenty.     The  mammoth  roamed  in  large  herds  over  the  plains 

*  See  illustration  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter. 


26  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

of  Siberia,  where  it  fed  on  the  leaves  of  spruce  and  fir,  and  even 
crushed  twigs  of  considerable  size  between  its  powerful  molars. 
This  animal,  it  is  believed  by  some,  existed  for  a  long  time  in 
Northern  Asia  before  it  found  its  way  to  Europe,  in  w^hich  conti- 
nent it  does  not  seem  to  have  lived  prior  to  the  period  of  the 
drift.  Another  species  of  elephant,  the  Elephas  antiquus,  existed 
during  the  drift  time,  but  its  remains  occur  less  frequently  than 
those  of  the  mammoth. 


SKULL   OF   THE    -VVOOLLT-HAIKED   RHINOCEBOS. 


The  Woolly-haired  Rhinoceros  {Ithinoceros  ticliorliinui). — 
An  extinct  animal  whose  remains  occur  mostly  associated  with 
those  of  the  mammoth,  showing  that  their  range  was  nearly  the 
same.  It  was  frequent  in  Siberia,  whence  it  seems  to  have  emi- 
grated to  Europe  with  the  mammoth.  In  its  habits  it  resembled 
the  last-named  animal,  feeding  on  leaves  and  boughs,  and  was 
likewise  covered  with  a  fur  of  combined  wool  and  hair.  The  lat- 
ter fact  admits  of  no  doubt,  preserved  specimens  of  this  rhinoce- 
ros having  been  found  imbedded  in  Siberian  ice.  This  creature 
was  large  of  body,  but  short-legged,  and  carried  two  horns  upon 
a  nose  supported  by  an  osseous  septum.  Several  species  of  rhi- 
noceros lived  at  the  epoch  under  notice,  among  which  the  woolly- 
haired  is  most  frequently  mentioned. 

The  Hippopotamus. — A  pachyderm  denominated  Hippopota- 
mus major^  which  was  not  uncommon  during  the  drift,  may  be 
identical  with  the  species  inhabiting  the  large  rivers  of  Africa. 

The  Cave-Bear  (Ursus  spelceus). — The  remains  of  this  ani- 


THE  DRIFT.  27 

mal,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter,  are  very  frequent  in  caves ;  hence 
the  name.  They  abound  in  Central  Europe,  especially  in  Germa- 
ny, and  in  the  southern  parts  of  Russia,  occurring  also  in  Italy 


SKULL    OF   THE   CAVE-BEAB. 


and  Spain.  The  cave-bear,  perhaps  an  earlier  inhabitant  of  Eu- 
rope than  the  mammoth,  was  a  huge  animal  surpassing  in  size  the 
North  American  grizzly,  and  must  have  possessed  great  strength, 
though  it  has  been  inferred  from  the  frequent  absence  of  the  so- 
called  gap-teeth  in  this  species  that  it  may  have  been  less  fero- 
cious than  its  size  would  indicate.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
cave -bear  was  the  progenitor  of  any  of  the  existing  species  of 
bear.  Future  investigations  and  comparisons  probably  will  set- 
tle that  point.  Another  bear  of  the  period  under  notice,  the  Ur- 
siis  priscus,  is  supposed  by  some  to  survive  in  the  grizzly  bear  of 
this  country. 

The  Cave-Lion  {Felis  spelced). — A  formidable  animal,  supe- 
rior in  size  and  strength  to  any  of  the  present  feline  species. 
This  carnivore,  which  was  formerly  thought  to  belong  to  the 
tiger  kind,  is  now  considered  as  a  variety  of  the  still  existing 
lion,  "possessing  in  an  exaggerated  degree  the  characters  by 
which  that  species  is  distinguishable  from  the  tiger"  (Sir  John 
Lubbock).  The  cave-lion  has  left  its  remains  in  England,  France, 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Italy,  including  the  Sicilian  Island. 
It  deserves  mention  in  this  place  that  lions  appear  to  have  lived 
in  South-eastern  Europe  down  to  historical  times.  According 
to  Herodotus,  they  attacked  in  the  mountains  of  Thessaly  the 


28  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

camels  in  the  army  of  Xerxes ;  and  Aristotle  speaks  of  tliem  as 
being  frequent  in  the  region  between  the  rivers  Achelous  and 
Nessus. 

The  Cave -Hyena  {Hycena  q>elced)  resembled  the  spotted 
hyena  of  the  Cape,  but  was  larger  and  more  powerful. 

The  Ueus  (^Bos  primigenius). — A  large  bovine,  which  be- 
came extinct  in  recent  times.  Caesar  describes  these  animals, 
which  abounded  at  his  time  in  the  Hercynian  Forest,  in  Ger- 
many, in  the  following  terms :  "  They  nearly  equal  the  elephant 
in  bulk,  but  in  color,  shape,  and  kind  resemble  a  bull.  They 
are  of  uncommon  strength  and  swiftness,  and  spare  neither  man 
nor  beast  that  comes  in  their  way.  They  are  taken  and  slain  by 
means  of  pits  dug  on  purpose.  This  way  of  hunting  is  frequent 
among  the  youth  of  Germany,  and  serves  to  inure  them  to  fatigue. 
They  who  kill  the  greatest  number,  and  produce  their  horns  in 
public  as  a  proof,  are  in  high  reputation  with  their  countrymen. 
It  is  found  impossible  to  tame  them  or  to  conquer  their  fierce- 
ness, though  taken  ever  so  young.  Their  horns,  both  in  large- 
ness, figure,  and  kind,  differ  much  from  those  of  our  bulls.  The 
natives  preserve  them  with  great  care,  tip  their  edges  with  silver, 
and  use  them  instead  of  cups  on  their  most  solemn  festivals." 
They  were  hunted,  according  to  the  "Nibelungenlied"  of  the 
twelfth  century,  in  the  forests  near  Worms,  and  are  said  to  have 
still  existed  in  Germany  during  the  sixteenth  century,  soon  after 
which  they  seem  to  have  totally  disappeared.  These  animals 
co-existed  with  the  mammoth  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  and 
their  geographical  distribution  was  extensive,  remains  of  them 
occurring  throughout  Europe :  in  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  Swe- 
den, France,  Germany,  Italy,  Spain,  and  even,  it  is  said,  in  North- 
ern Africa.  The  race  is  now  extinct,  unless  it  has  survived,  as 
some  have  suggested,  in  the  large  Frisian  oxen,  or  the  wild  cattle 
of  Chillingham,  in  England. 

The  Aurochs,  ok  Bison  {Bison  Miropceus). — Another  large 


THE  DRIFT.  29 

bovine,  resembling  the  Nortb  American  bison,  erroneously  called 
buffalo.  Remains  of  the  aurochs  are  found  in  England,  France, 
Germany,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Poland,  and 
Russia.  Pliny  and  Seneca  speak  of  it  as  existing  in  the  great 
forests  of  Germany,  but  Caesar  gives  no  account  of  the  animal, 
which  is,  however,  mentioned,  by  the  side  of  the  urus,  in  the 
"  Nibelungenlied,"  and  was  still  hunted,  it  is  said,  in  Prussia 
down  to  the  year  1775,  after  which  it  became  extinct  in  Ger- 
many. These  bisons  would  have  totally  disappeared  from  Eu- 
rope but  for  the  care  of  the  Russian  Government,  which  preserves 
a  herd  of  them  in  a  forest  of  Lithuania,  guarding  against  their 
destruction  by  strict  laws.*  A  few  also  occur  wild  in  the  Cau- 
casus Mountains. 

The  Musk-Ox,  oe  Musk-Sheep  {Ovibos  moschatus). — ^Now  to- 
tally extinct  in  the  Old  World,  but  still  inhabiting  in  herds  the 
arctic  regions  of  America,  seldom  wandering  farther  south  than 
the  sixty-eighth  parallel.  It  is  a  horned  animal  of  the  size  of 
small  cattle,  and  clad  in  a  dense  fur  of  long  silky  hair.  Remains 
are  found  in  Central  Europe,  and  rarely  in  England. 

The  Gigantic  Ieish  Deer  {Megaceros  Hihernicus). — This 
beautiful  stag,  which  once  inhabited  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and 
England,  but  especially  Ireland,  had  entirely  disappeared  before 
historical  times.  A  mysterious  animal  mentioned  as  the  schelch 
in  the  "Nibelungenlied"  has  been  thought  to  be  identical  with 
the  Irish  deer;  yet  this  is  an  opinion  unsupported  by  any  evi- 
dence. Its  bones  are  said  to  occur  often  in  peat  bogs;  but  Pro- 
fessor Owen,  who  made  numerous  inquiries  on  the  subject,  be- 
lieves that  the  remains  generally  are  met  in  a  shell  marl  underly- 

*  In  1830,  the  herd  numbered,  according  to  Sir  John  Lubbock,  711  head, 
of  which,  during  the  Polish  revolution  in  1831,  115  were  killed.  From  that 
time  they  gradually  increased  until  1857,  when  the  numbers  were  1898;  but 
during  the  late  Polish  rebellion  they  fell  to  874.  Since  1863  no  numbers 
have  been  given. 


30  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

ing  the  peat.  The  animal  was  ten  feet  four  inches  high,  and  car- 
ried on  its  small  head  magnificent  antlers,  measuring  eleven  feet 
between  their  tips. 

To  this  list  should  be  added  the  reindeer,  which  played  a 
very  conspicuous  part  in  the  prehistoric  times  of  Europe ;  the 
horse,  stag,  elk,  hog;  and  likewise  numerous  smaller  animals 
which  lived  at  the  period  under  consideration,  as  proved  by  col- 
lateral evidence,  though  their  bones,  on  account  of  their  inferior 
size,  have  not  been  preserved  in  the  river  gravel ;  and  it  may  be 
stated  here  that  only  the  larger  and  more  solid  bones  of  the  ele- 
phant and  hippopotamus,  the  ox,  horse,  and  stag,  are  found  in 
these  deposits.  The  fauna  of  the  European  drift  comprised,  be- 
sides the  extinct  mammalians,  such  as  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros, 
Irish  deer,  etc.,  most  of  the  now  existing  species,  and  was  conse- 
quently richer  and  more  varied  than  that  of  the  present  day.  As 
absolutely  extinct  can  only  be  regarded  the  mammoth,  the  differ- 
ent species  of  rhinoceros,  and  the  Irish  deer.  The  cave-bear,  cave- 
lion,  cave-hyena,  and  others  may  still  survive,  as  we  have  seen, 
under  modified  forms,  and  the  term  "  extinct,"  therefore,  must  be 
applied  to  them  in  a  somewhat  restricted  sense. 

The  climate  of  Europe,  as  we  already  observed,  must  have 
been  more  rigorous  at  that  period  than  at  present.  Yet  the  cave- 
lion  and  hyena,  and  particularly  the  hippopotamus,  elephant,  rhi- 
noceros, etc.,  would  seem  to  indicate  a  warm  rather  than  a  cold 
climate.  The  question  is  certainly  a  perplexing  one,  from  what- 
ever point  it  may  be  viewed.  The  reader  knows  that  the  ele- 
phant and  rhinoceros  of  that  period,  unlike  the  almost  hairless 
species  of  our  days,  were  covered  with  a  dense  fur  consisting  of 
wool  and  hair,  which  enabled  them  to  endure  an  arctic  tempera- 
ture. The  tiger  of  Southern  Asia,  it  is  adduced,  has  been  seen  in 
Siberia  as  far  north  as  the  fifty-second  degree ;  and  in  the  North 
of  Africa  hyenas  are  known  to  prowl  about  the  highest  regions 
of  the  Atlas  Mountains,  where  during  winter  a  severe  cold,  with 


TSE  DRIFT.  31 

ice  and  snow,  is  reigning.  Of  the  extinct  carnivores,  moreover, 
the  bones  only  have  been  found,  and  nothing  is  known  of  their 
external  covering,  which  may  have  been  suited  to  a  cold  temper- 
ature, and  the  same  argument  is  brought  forward  in  reference  to 
the  hippopotamus.  The  reindeer,  essentially  a  Northern  animal 
both  in  the  Old  World  and  in  North  America,  has  long  ceased  to 
live  in  the  West  of  Europe,  and  has  retreated  to  the  coldest  part 
of  that  continent ;  while  the  musk-ox,  entirely  extinct  in  Europe, 
survives  only  in  the  snow  regions  of  North  America,  ranging,  it  is 
believed,  even  higher  toward  the  pole  than  the  reindeer.  Lastly, 
we  have  to  mention,  as  characteristic  of  the  European  drift,  the 
glutton,  lemming,  rat-hare  {Lagomyi)^  and  pouched  marmot,  all 
of  them  now  inhabitants  of  cold  countries. 

On  the  whole,  the  facts  here  enumerated  are  indicative  of  a 

rigorous  temperature  during  the  time,  or  at  least  a  great  part  of 

the  time,  when  the  river  gravels  were  deposited ;  and  such  a 

,  state  is  perfectly  corroborated  by  geological  evidence,  as  we  will 

try  to  explain  in  a  few  words. 

The  quaternary  formation,  to  which  the  deposits  of  river 
gravel  belong,  is  geologically  the  most  recent  one,  although  it 
extended  over  an  immense  period  of  time.  It  was  preceded  by 
the  tertiary  epoch,  during  which  a  milder  temperature  reigned, 
as  indicated  by  the  character  of  the  then  existing  plants  and 
animals.  "  The  end  of  the  tertiary  period,"  says  Professor  Vogt, 
"  which  we  do  not  separate  from  the  present  by  a  sharply  defined 
line,  but  by  a  broad  transitional  margin,  was  doubtless  distin- 
guished by  a  somewhat  warmer  climate  than  that  which  at  pres- 
ent obtains  in  Central  Europe.  While  in  the  middle  of  the  terti- 
ary period  palms  were  growing  in  Switzerland,  and  high  Califor- 
nian  pine-trees  in  Iceland,  the  end  of  the  tertiary  period  was 
marked  by  a  number  of  evergreen  plants,  with  a  temperature  in 
Switzerland  like  that  of  Italy."  Toward  the  end  of  the  tertiary 
period  a  change  in  the  physical  condition  of  the  earth  was  effect- 


32  EARLY  MAN  IN  EVEOPE. 

ed  by  a  general  refrigeration,  which,  of  course,  exerted  a  powerful 
and  modifying  influence  on  the  organic  beings  then  in  existence. 
Under  the  influence  of  various  causes  not  yet  sufficiently  recog- 
nized, large  portions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America  became  cov- 
ered with  huge  masses  of  ice,  while  the  lower  lands  of  the  con- 
tinents were  flooded  by  glacial  waters.  Land  and  water  were 
then  somewhat  differently  distributed  in  Europe:  the  Baltic, for 
instance,  is  supposed  to  have  communicated  with  the  White  Sea 
and  the  Sea  of  Kara ;  and  England,  perhaps,  was  still  connected 
with  the  main -land  of  Europe,  and  Denmark  with  Norway. 
These  remarkable  changes  extended  over  an  immense  space  of 
time,  the  Glacial  Period  of  geologists.  An  exposition  of  the 
many  curious  phenomena  connected  with  it,  such  as  the  transpor- 
tation of  boulders  and  the  formation  of  loess,  belongs  to  geology, 
and,  of  course,  can  not  be  attempted  in  this  place.  For  our  pur- 
pose it  suffices  to  have  alluded  to  the  circumstance  which  inau- 
gurated toward  the  end  of  the  tertiary  period  that  change  in  the 
temperature  which  permitted  animals  now  belonging  to  northern 
climates  to  subsist  in  Western  Europe. 

The  reign  of  cold,  however,  was  not  one  of  uninterrupted  con- 
tinuance. There  are,  on  the  contrary,  strong  reasons  for  believing 
that  its  rigor  was  moderated  by  long  periods  of  comparative 
warmth.  Mr.  James  Geikie  published,  in  1874,  a  work  entitled 
"  The  Great  Ice  Age,  and  its  Relation  to  the  Antiquity  of  Man," 
in  which  he  advances  the  view  that  certain  animals  whose  re- 
mains occur  commingled  in  river  gravels  and  cave  deposits  can 
not  have  been  contemporary  inhabitants  of  the  same  localities  of 
Europe,  and  he  therefore  believes  in  alternate  changes  or  oscilla- 
tions of  climate,  which  permitted  tropical  and  northern  species 
of  animals  to  inhabit  certain  districts  at  different  periods,  when 
the  temperature  was  congenial  to  their  respective  natural  habits. 
Southern  quadrupeds,  like  the  hippopotamus,  lion,  and  hyena, 
he  thinks,  can  not  have  lived  side  by  side  with  the  reindeer, 


THE  DRIFT.  33 

musk-ox,  mammoth,  or  woolly  rhinoceros ;  and  he  rejects  the  view 
of  those  geologists  who  bridge  over  this  difficulty  by  assuming 
that  certain  animals  of  the  first-named  class  migrated  annually 
during  the  severe  season  to  warmer  regions,  and  returned  to 
their  old  haunts  again  when  milder  weather  set  in.  It  remains 
to  be  seen  whether  Mr.  Geikie's  conclusions  will  meet  with  gen- 
eral approval. 

The  evidence  that  man  witnessed  in  Europe  the  last  glacial 
phenomena  is  not  wanting.  Only  a  short  time  ago  there  were 
discovered  in  an  interglacial  bed  of  lignite  or  brown  coal  at  Wet- 
zikon,  in  Switzerland,  several  wooden  sticks  which  are  cut  and 
sharpened  in  a  manner  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  their  having  been 
wrought  by  human  hands.  The  bed  of  lignite  in  which  these  re- 
markable relics  occurred  underlies  and  rests  upon  formations  of 
glacial  origin,  and  has  yielded  bones  of  the  Elephas  antiquus,  an 
extinct  rhinoceros,  the  cave-bear,  urus,  and  several  still  existing 
quadrupeds.*  Whether  the  human  race  can  be  traced  as  far 
back  as  the  tertiary  period  is  a  question  which  the  future  will 
decide.  Some  slight  indications  at  least  of  man's  presence  before 
the  quaternary  epoch  are  not  wanting,  and  the  fact  may  yet  be 
established  by  incontestable  evidence. 

Surrounded  by  an  animal  world  such  as  we  have  described, 
lived  the  first  human  beings  of  whom  any  tangible  tokens  have 
been  left.  They  subsisted  by  hunting  and  fishing,  but  represent- 
ed, beyond  question,  the  lowest  type  of  that  condition  of  human 
existence.  Archaeologists  are  accustomed  to  infer  the  social  state 
of  prehistoric  populations  from  the  productions  of  their  mechanic- 

*  Speaking  of  the  same  formation  of  lignite,  Sir  Charles  Lyell  observes: 
"Although  no  human  remains  or  works  of  art  have  yet  been  found  in  work- 
ing the  Swiss  lignite,  it  would  be  rash  to  speculate  on  the  non-existence  of 
the  human  race  in  the  region  where  these  interglacial  deposits  accumulated 
on  the  margin  of  the  lakes."  Had  the  great  geologist  lived  a  year  longer,  he 
would  have  seen  his  conjecture  realized. 

3 


34  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

al  skill ;  and  we  have  just  beheld  in  the  West  of  Europe  a  race 
of  men  who  used  the  most  primitive  weapons  ever  found ;  and 
with  these  wretched  arms,  some  of  which  were  attached  to  clubs 
and  poles,  they  fought  the  beasts  of  the  field,  and  met  each  other 
in  deadly  combat.  They  were  unacquainted,  as  it  appears,  with 
the  use  of  bows  and  arrows,  and  with  the  manufacture  of  pottery. 
Indeed,  they  lived  in  the  lowest  stage  of  the  Stone  Age,  which 
age,  at  later  periods,  has  furnished  a  variety  of  tools  and  weapons 
remarkable  for  the  skill,  and  even  for  the  sense  of  elegance,  of 
those  who  made  them. 

Human  remains  were  long  sought  in  vain  in  the  tool  and 
bone  bearing  strata  of  the  Somme  valley,  and  many  were  the  rea- 
sons given  to  account  for  their  absence.  It  was  said,  for  instance, 
that  the  number  of  human  beings  living  at  the  drift  period  must 
have  been  small  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  animals  of  the 
same  epoch,  the  severe  struggle  for  existence  not  permitting  the 
race  to  multiply  in  a  rapid  ratio ;  and  the  comparative  smallness 
of  human  bones,  moreover,  was  adduced  as  a  ground  for  their  dis- 
appearance. At  length,  however,  M.  Boucher  de  Perthes  succeed- 
ed in  finding,  at  Moulin-Quignon,  near  Abbeville,  a  human  lower 
jaw  of  peculiar  shape,  which  he  extracted  himself  from  the  stra- 
tum immediately  above  the  chalk.  The  jaw  is  of  the  same  dark- 
bluish  color  that  characterizes  the  surrounding  sand,  as  well  as 
the  flint  tools  occurring  in  the  latter.  This  discovery  was  follow- 
ed shortly  afterward  by  that  of  other  human  remains  at  the  same 
place.  The  jaw-bone  of  Moulin-Quignon,  now  preserved  in  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris,  has  given  rise  to  many  dis- 
cussions among  the  learned,  even  to  a  congress  of  French  and  En- 
glish savants  held  in  loco.  Generally  speaking,  French  and  Ger- 
man anthropologists  consider  the  jaw  as  a  relic  belonging  to  the 
age  of  the  mammoth  and  the  worked  flints,  while  the  savants  of 
England  seem  to  be  skeptical  in  the  matter.  No  doubts,  howev- 
er, are  entertained  with  regard  to  portions  of  the  human  skeleton 


THE  DRIFT.  35 

found  in  1868  by  Messrs.  Bertrand  and  Reboux  in  the  valley  of 
the  Seine,  near  Clichy,  and  elsewhere  near  Paris,  in  the  same  beds 
in  which  implements  of  the  true  drift  type  have  been  discovered. 
We  can  not  quote  in  this  short  sketch  the  computations  of 
geologists  concerning  the  antiquity  of  the  river  drift;  for  these 
details  we  must  refer  to  the  proper  authorities,  such  as  Sir 
Charles  Lyell,  Evans,  and  others.  Yet,  in  conclusion,  we  will 
draw  the  reader's  attention  to  a  remarkable  circumstance  rela- 
ting to  the  age  of  the  drift  in  the  valley  of  the  Somme.  There 
extends  through  a  considerable  portion  of  that  valley  a  bed  of 
peat  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  thickness,  and  undoubtedly  of 
later  origin  than  the  drift-deposits  of  the  same  locality.  In  this 
peat  are  found  imbedded  the  bones  of  quadrupeds  and  shells,  all 
of  the  same  species  now  inhabiting  Europe ;  and,  further,  trunks 
of  the  alder  and  walnut  and  stems  of  the  hazel,  together  with 
nuts  of  the  same.  The  workmen  who  cut  the  peat  declare  that 
in  the  course  of  their  lives  none  of  the  hollows  which  they  have 
found  or  caused  by  extracting  peat  have  ever  been  refilled  even 
to  a  small  extent,  and  therefore  deny  that  peat  grows.  This,  how- 
ever, is  a  mistake,  the  increment  in  one  generation  not  being  per- 
ceptible to  an  ordinary  observer.  Near  the  surface  of  the  peat 
occur  Gallo-Roman  remains,  and,  still  deeper,  weapons  of  the  later 
Stone  Period.  But  the  depth  at  which  these  works  of  art  are 
found  can  not  be  considered  as  a  sure  test  of  age,  the  peat  being 
often  so  fluid  that  heavy  substances  may  sink  through  it  by 
their  own  weight.  In  one  instance,  however,  Boucher  de  Perthes 
observed  several  large  flat  dishes  of  Roman  pottery  lying  in  a 
horizontal  position  in  the  peat,  the  shape  of  which  must  have 
prevented  them  from  sinking  through  the  underlying  peat.  Al- 
lowing about  fourteen  centuries  for  the  growth  of  the  superin- 
cumbent vegetable  matter,  he  calculated  that  the  thickness  gain- 
ed in  a  hundred  years  would  be  no  more  than  three  French  cen- 
timetres, or  about  nine -eighths  of  an  English  inch.     "This  rate 


36  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

of  increase,"  says  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  from  whom  the  above  state- 
ments are  taken,  "  would  demand  so  many  thousands  of  years 
for  the  formation  of  the  entire  thickness  of  thirty  feet  that  we 
must  hesitate  before  adopting  it  as  a  chronometric  scale." 


THE   MAHMOTH. 


SECTION    OF  A   PAKT   OF   THE   CAVE    OF   GAILENBEUTH,  BAVAKIA. 


CHAPTER  IL 


THE  CAVES. 

The  exploration  of  caves  in  England,  France,  Belgium,  Germa- 
ny, and  other  parts  of  Europe  has  been  even  more  fruitful  in  im- 
portant results  illustrative  of  the  former  condition  of  man  than 
the  examination  of  the  river  gravels  treated  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  Caves,  it  is  well  known,  mostly  occur  in  limestone  rocks 
of  various  geological  formations,  and  differ  very  much  in  extent 
and  shape.  Thus  the  so-called  grottoes  are  short  cavities  with 
wide  external  apertures,  owing  in  many  cases  their  origin  to  soft 
materials,  such  as  marl,  that  have  been  carried  off  from  beneath 
the  harder  rocks  which  now  form  their  roofs,  while  the  real  cav- 
erns are  frequently  of  surprising  dimensions,  extending  for  miles 
under  the  ground,  and  containing  large  chambers  or  halls,  con- 
nected by  galleries  often  so  low  that  visitors  must  creep  on  hands 
and  feet  in  order  to  pass  through.  Sometimes  these  chambers 
are  not  situated  in  the  same  plane,  but  have  to  be  reached  by 


38  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

ladders  from  above  or  from  below.  The  entrances  to  the  caves, 
though  in  most  cases  nearly  horizontal,  or  more  or  less  inclined, 
are  sometimes  quite  perpendicular,  forming  natural  shafts.  Some 
caves,  like  the  celebrated  Mammoth  Cave  in  Kentucky,  contain 
small  lakes  or  navigable  running  waters,  harboring  curious  fishes, 
in  which,  owing  to  the  eternal  darkness  that  surrounds  them,  the 
organ  of  sight  has  remained  undeveloped. 

Limestone  rocks  are  remarkable  for  being  traversed  by  many 
fissures  and  cracks,  presenting  natural  conduits  through  which 
the  atmospheric  water  is  carried  into  the  interior  of  the  mount- 
ains. This  water  possesses  the  quality  of  dissolving  to  some  ex- 
tent the  lime  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  In  reaching  the 
caves,  it  trickles  from  the  roofs  and  the  sides,  and,  having  evapo- 
rated, deposits  its  contents  in  the  shape  of  thin  layers  of  carbon- 
ate of  lime  wherever  circumstances  favor  that  process.  The  in- 
crustations adhering  to  the  roof,  which  gradually  have  acquired 
the  form  of  icicles,  are  called  stalactites,  while  those  on  the  floor 
appear  like  conical  or  columnar  elevations,  designated  as  stalag- 
mites. Often  these  pendent  and  rising  formations  have  met, 
presenting  pillars  or  buttresses,  or  have  assumed  other  strange 
shapes,  in  which  the  tourist,  who  views  them  by  the  flickering 
light  of  a  torch,  imagines  to  recognize  curtains,  cascades,  organs, 
statues,  altars,  and  other  odd  figurations  which  his  fancy  may  sug- 
gest. How  many  thousands  of  years  were  required  for  building 
up  these  sometimes  colossal  accumulations  of  calcareous  matter 
can  not  be  determined,  considering  that  the  increment  may  not 
progress  in  an  invariable  ratio  even  in  the  same  cave ;  but  in  or- 
der to  show  how  slowly  the  deposit  sometimes  increases  we  will 
mention  that  in  the  celebrated  cavern  of  Adelsberg,  in  lUyria, 
names  and  dates  traced  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centu- 
ries can  be  deciphered  even  at  present,  the  incrustation  formed 
since  that  time  not  having  acquired  a  thickness  sufficient  to  hide 
those  inscriptions.  • 


THE  CAVES.  39 

In  caves  where  these  calcareous  formations  have  been  pro- 
gressing— for  in  some  they  are  wanting — the  floor  is  covered 
with  a  stalagmitic  crust  of  variable  thickness.  Below  it  there 
occurs  in  many  cases  a  more  or  less  stratified  layer  of  yellow  or 
reddish  earth,  in  some  instances  of  considerable  thickness,  which 
frequently  rests  upon  a  basis  of  pebbles,  differing  in  material 
from  the  rocks  of  the  neighborhood,  and  evidently  brought  from 
distant  places.  The  earth  or  mud  just  mentioned  is  often  of  lit- 
tle consistency,  and  almost  loose,  but  sometimes  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  lime,  in  which  case  it  forms  a  cement  of  considerable 
hardness.  This  substance  has  been  designated  as  hone- earth,  be- 
cause the  bones  of  extinct  and  living  animals  are  abundantly 
found  in  it,  and  likewise,  though  more  rarely,  those  of  man,  to- 
gether with  rude  articles  of  his  workmanship. 

Land  and  fresh- water  shells  of  existing  species  are  sometimes 
mingled  with  these  remains.  In  general  the  bones  lie  indiscrim- 
inately scattered  throughout  the  earth,  in  a  manner  altogether 
different  from  their  relative  position  while  belonging  to  the  liv- 
ing organism,  insomuch  that  the  jaws  are  separated  from  the 
skulls,  and  that  the  different  parts  of  a  skeleton  have  rarely,  if 
ever,  been  found  in  their  proper  places.  Many  of  the  bones  re- 
tain their  original  sharpness  of  outline,  which  seems  to  indicate 
thai  they  were  still  covered  with  the  fleshy  parts  when  intro- 
duced into  the  cavern;  others,  on  the  contrary,  are  worn  and 
rounded  by  friction,  thus  exhibiting  the  unmistakable  marks  of 
their  having  been  drifted  by  water.  There  is  also  a  great  dif- 
ference in  the  chemical  condition  of  the  bones,  some  of  which 
appear  quite  fresh,  having  retained  their  animal  matter,  while 
most  of  them  are  more  or  less  void  of  it,  and  sometimes  so  far 
decayed  that  they  crumble  into  dust  upon  being  handled.  Some 
bones,  finally,  have  been  gnawed  and  cracked  by  wild  beasts. 

The  osseous  remains  of  European  bone-caves  are  chiefly  those 
of  bears  and  hyenas,  intermingled  with  the  bones  of  wolves,  foxes, 


40  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

gluttons,  horses,  oxen,  stags,  mammoths,  and  other  extinct  or  still 
living  mammals.  From  the  great  preponderance  of  the  bones 
of  carnivores,  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  caves  served  former- 
ly to  those  animals  of  prey  as  dens,  into  vrhich  they  introduced 
their  victims,  torn  or  entire,  to  feed  their  young;  and  there  is 
ample  evidence  that  this  was  the  case  to  some  extent.  Hyenas 
evidently  have  inhabited  certain  caves  and  reared  their  young 
in  them.  Bears  likewise  retire  to  caves,  chiefly  during  hiberna- 
tion, but,  according  to  Vogt,  are  not  in  the  habit  of  introducing 
bones.  Yet  such  occupations  of  the  caves  by  bears  and  hyenas, 
even  through  many  generations,  can  not  account  for  the  aston- 
ishing number  of  bones  found  in  some  of  them.  In  the  cave 
of  Gailenreuth,  in  Bavaria,  were  discovered  within  ninety  years 
the  remains  of  at  least  eight  hundred  cave-bears ;  and  from  the 
amount  of  bone-earth  in  another  Bavarian  cave  Dr.  Buckland  has 
calculated  that  five  thousand  five  hundred  animals  of  the  same 
species  were  there  entombed.  Large  collections  of  bones,  more- 
over, are  found  in  caves  with  entrances  so  high  that  no  living 
animals  could  have  had  access  to  them.  The  rolled  stones,  final- 
ly, which,  as  we  have  mentioned,  often  underlie  the  bone-earth  or 
are  mingled  with  it,  certainly  were  not  brought  to  their  places  by 
wild  beasts. 

It  must  be  assumed,  therefore,  that  the  bone -caves  owe  their 
deposits  in  a  great  measure  to  the  agency  of  water.  The  surface 
of  Europe,  as  we  have  shown,  was  subject  to  great  changes  at 
those  remote  periods  when  the  now  lost  animals  were  still  in 
existence,  and  we  have  alluded  to  the  causes  by  which  floods, 
more  or  less  extensive,  were  produced.  When  the  then  higher 
levels  of  the  water-courses  and  their  increased  swiftness  are  taken 
into  consideration,  it  would  seem  to  require  no  great  stretch  of 
fancy  for  imagining  in  what  manner  pebbles,  mud,  shells,  and 
bones,  fresh  as  well  as  decayed,  were  introduced  into  the  caves, 
even  into  such  as  are  now  found  high  above  the  bottoms  of  val- 


TRE  CAVES.  41 

leys.  In  some  caves  containing  no  pebbles  the  mud  may  have 
been  gradually  deposited  by  the  melting  of  snow.  Caves,  doubt- 
less, were  the  first  dwelling-places  of  primitive  man.  They  afibrd- 
ed  him  protection  against  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  against 
the  attacks  of  wild  beasts  and  of  enemies  of  his  own  race.  Oc- 
casionally he  also  deposited  there  his  dead.  Hence  the  human 
remains  found  in  bone -caves  may  be,  in  a  number  of  cases  at 
least,  mementoes  of  their  former  occupants.  Some,  however,  be- 
lieve that  human  bones  and  tools  were  mostly  washed  into  the 
caves,  like  the  animal  remains  and  other  materials  there  deposited. 

A  satisfactory  solution  of  the  question  how  bone-caves  were 
filled  is  by  no  means  easy,  and  geologists  therefore  are  not  quite 
agreed  on  that  point.  Several  causes,  such  as  a  successive  occu- 
pation by  animals  and  man,  or  vice  versd,  together  with  the  action 
of  water,  may  occasionally  have  co-operated  in  the  fonnation  of 
the  deposit  in  the  same  cave.  This  view,  we  must  expressly 
state,  applies  only  to  bone-caves  proper ;  other  caves  undoubtedly 
served  as  the  regular  habitations  of  man,  who  has  left  there  abun- 
dantly the  tokens  of  his  occupancy,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to 
show  in  the  sequel. 

After  this  condensed  general  description  of  bone -caves,  we 
will  now  proceed  to  lay  before  the  reader  a  few  of  the  most  im- 
portant facts  resulting  from  the  cave  researches  which  have  been 
carried  on  with  uncommon  zeal,  especially  within  late  years,  in 
various  countries  of  Europe. 

In  1828,  M.  Toumal  discovered  in  the  cavern  of  Bize,  Depart- 
ment of  the  Aude  (Southern  France),  human  bones  and  teeth,  to- 
gether with  fragments  of  rude  pottery,  in  a  layer  of  mud  and 
breccia  containing  land  shells  of  living  species  and  the  bones 
of  mammals,  such  as  the  aurochs  and  the  reindeer,  the  latter  of 
which  is  not  known  to  have  lived  in  historical  times  in  France, 
and  whose  remains  usually  occur  in  that  country  associated  with 
those  of  the  mammoth.     Bones  of  an  antelope,  a  stag,  and  a  goat 


42  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

were  also  met  in  this  cave.  The  human  remains  were  found  to 
be  in  the  same  chemical  condition  as  those  of  the  accompanying 
quadrupeds.  M.  Tournal  concluded  that  these  remains  had  not 
been  suddenly  washed  in  by  a  flood,  but  had  been  gradually  in- 
troduced at  successive  periods.  At  the  same  time  M.  De  Chris- 
tol  gave  an  account  of  his  discoveries  in  the  cavern  of  Pondres, 
near  Nismes,  in  the  neighboring  Department  of  the  Gard,  where 
he  had  discovered  some  human  bones,  with  those  of  an  extinct 
hyena  and  a  rhinoceros,  in  a  deposit  of  mud  and  gravel  which 
filled  the  cave  up  to  the  roof.  He  also  found  there  fragments  of 
two  kinds  of  pottery,  the  rudest  lying  near  the  bottom  of  the 
cave,  below  the  level  of  the  extinct  mammalia.  The  conclusions 
arrived  at  by  Messrs.  Tournal  and  De  Christol,  that  man  had 
co-existed  with  those  animals,  was  disputed  by  contemporary  sa- 
vants ;  and  Sir  Charles  Lyell  himself,  after  having  examined  a 
number  of  caves  in  Germany,  "  came  to  the  opinion  that  the  hu- 
man bones  mixed  with  those  of  extinct  animals,  in  osseous  brec- 
cias and  cavern  mud,  were  probably  not  coeval.  But  of  late 
years,"  says  this  eminent  geologist,  "  we  have  obtained  convincing 
proofs  that  the  mammoth  and  many  other  extinct  mammalian 
species  very  common  in  caves  occur  also  in  undisturbed  alluvium 
(or  drift),  imbedded  in  such  a  manner  with  works  of  art  as  to 
leave  no  room  for  doubt  that  man  and  the  mammoth  co-existed." 
Among  cave-explorers  the  late  Dr.  Schmerling,  of  Liege,  occu- 
pies a  prominent  rank.  After  having  devoted  many  years  to  a 
careful  examination  of  the  caves  in  the  valley  of  the  Meuse  and 
its  tributaries,  he  published  in  1833  the  results  of  his  investiga- 
tions, but  unfortunately  died  before  his  merits  were  duly  appreci- 
ated by  the  scientific  world.  Many  of  the  caves — he  examined 
more  than  forty — never  had  been  visited  by  explorers,  and  he 
found  their  floors  incrusted  with  an  unbroken  stalagmitic  cover- 
ing, under  which  the  bones  of  extinct  and  living  animals  and 
those  of  man  occurred  in  the  bone-earth.     The  human  bones  lay 


THE  CAVES.  43 

scattered  about  like  those  of  the  animals,  and  corresponded  iq 
appearance  and  chemical  condition  perfectly  to  the  latter,  which 
were  sometimes  broken  and  rounded,  and  never  exhibited  traces 
of  having  been  gnawed.  Dr.  Schmerling,  therefore,  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  these  caves  had  neither  served  as  burying-places 
nor  had  been  the  dens  of  wild  beasts,  but  that  streams  communi- 
cating with  the  surface  of  the  country  had  introduced  their  con- 
tents. The  animal  remains  found  by  him  were  those  of  the  cave- 
bear,  cave-hyena,  mammoth,  rhinoceros,  horse,  reindeer,  red  deer, 
roe,  wild  cat,  wild  boar,  fox,  wolf,  weasel,  beaver,  hare,  rabbit, 
hedgehog,  mole,  dormouse,  field-mouse,  water-rat,  shrew,  and  some 
others.  Together  with  these  were  dispersed  through  the  cave 
mud  land  shells  of  living  species,  and  in  rare  instances  bones  of 
fresh-water  fish,  snakes,  and  birds. 

The  most  important  remainder  of  man  discovered  by  Schmer- 
ling is  the  skull  of  the  Engis  cavern  (now  totally  quarried  away), 
which  was  found  imbedded  five  feet  deep  in  a  breccia,  associated 
with  the  remains  of  the  rhinoceros,  reindeer,  and  horse.  This 
skull,  now  preserved  in  the  museum  of  Li^ge,  has  attracted  much 
attention  on  the  part  of  anthropologists,  and  has,  like  that  found 
in  1857  by  Dr.  Fuhlrott  in  a  cave  of  the  Neanderthal,  near  Diis- 
seldorf,  elicited  much  comment  concerning  the  physical  and  men- 
tal condition  of  prehistoric  man.  We  shall  have  occasion  to 
speak  of  these  two  skulls  at  the  close  of  this  chapter. 

Dr.  Schmerling  found  many  rude  flint  flakes  or  knives,  evi- 
dently made  by  man,  dispersed  through  the  mud  of  the  caves ; 
and  in  one  cave,  that  of  Chokier  (now  obliterated),  he  obtained  a 
polished  needle-shaped  bone  implement  perforated  at  the  lower 
extremity,  which  occurred  in  a  matrix  containing  the  remains  of 
a  rhinoceros. 

The  Belgian  savant  clearly  pointed  out  that  man  once  lived 
contemporaneously  with  several  extinct  species  of  quadrupeds ; 
but  his  views,  being  contradictory  to  the  then  prevalent  opinions 


44  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

of  geologists,  did  not  meet  with  approval  at  the  time  of  their  pub- 
lication, and  his  reputation  as  a  clear-sighted  investigator  dates 
from  a  period  v^hen  neither  distrust  nor  applause  could  any  long- 
er affect  him.  The  energy  displayed  by  Dr.  Schmerling  is  worthy 
of  particular  mention.  He  had  to  be  let  down,  says  Lyell,  day 
after  day,  by  a  rope  tied  to  a  tree,  so  as  to  slide  to  the  foot  of  the 
first  opening  of  the  Engis  cave,  where  the  best-preserved  human 
remains  were  found :  and  after  having  thus  gained  access  to  the 
first  subterranean  gallery,  he  was  compelled  to  creep  on  all  fours 
through  a  contracted  passage  leading  to  larger  chambers,  there  to 
superintend  by  torch-light,  week  after  week  and  year  after  year, 
the  workmen  who  were  breaking  through  the  stalagmitic  crust,  as 
hard  as  marble,  in  order  to  remove  piece  by  piece  the  underlying 
bone  breccia,  nearly  as  hard.  Thus  he  remained  for  hours  with 
his  feet  in  the  mud  and  with  water  dripping  from  the  roof  on  his 
head,  in  order  to  mark  the  position  and  guard  against  the  loss 
of  each  single  bone  of  a  skeleton.  And  at  length,  after  having 
found  leisure,  strength,  and  courage  for  all  these  operations,  he 
looked  forward,  as  the  fruits  of  his  labor,  to  the  publication  of  un- 
welcome intelligence,  opposed  to  the  prepossessions  of  the  scien- 
tific as  well  as  the  unscientific  public.  Such  has  been  the  fate  of 
too  many  discoverers. 

About  the  same  time,  when  Dr.  Schmerling  was  carrying  on 
his  explorations  of  Belgian  caves,  the  Rev.  J.  MacEnery,  of  the 
Catholic  clergy,  found  in  Kent's  cavern,  near  Torquay,  Devon- 
shire, in  the  red  loam  below  the  stalagmitic  covering,  not  only 
bones  of  the  mammoth,  woolly  rhinoceros,  and  other  extinct  quad- 
rupeds, but  also  a  number  of  flint  tools,  some  of  which  resemble 
the  oval-shaped  kind  common  at  Abbeville.  Mr.  Godwin- Austen 
published  in  1840  an  account  in  which  he  stated  that  he  had  ex- 
humed in  Kent's  cavern,  from  the  undisturbed  loam  below  the 
stalagmite,  works  of  man,  such  as  arrow-heads  and  knives  of  flint, 
with  remains  of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  ox,  deer,  horse,  bear,  and 


THE  CAVES. 


45 


FLINT  IMPLEMENTS  FROM  KENt'S  CAVEBN  (HALF  SIZE). 

a  feline  animal  of  large  size ;  and  that  all  these  must  have  been 
introduced  before  the  stalagmitic  flooring  had  been  formed.  In 
1864,  a  systematic  exploration  of  the  cave  was  begun,  and  is 
still  successfully  progressing,  under  the  superintendence  of  Messrs. 
Pengelly  and  Vivian. 

There  occurs  above  the  thick  and  almost  continuous  stalagmit- 
ic floor  of  Kent's  cavern  a  black  mold,  in  which  numerous  relics, 
belonging  to  different  times,  have  been  found,  such  as  stone  im- 
plements of  the  later  period,  bronze  articles,  bone  instruments, 
pottery  (in  part  distinctly  Roman  in  character),  marine  shells, 
numerous  mammalian  bones  of  existing  species,  and  some  human 
bones,  on  which  it  has  been  thought  there  are  traces  indicative 
of  cannibalism.  The  red  cave-earth  below  the  stalagmite  contains 
abundantly  bones  of  extinct  animals  and  implements  fashioned 
by  the  hand  of  man ;  and  in  a  part  of  the  cave  there  extends,  im- 
mediately underlying  the  stalagmite,  a  thin  layer  of  black  soil  in- 
closing charcoal,  numerous  flint  implements,  and  bones  and  teeth 
of  animals.  According  to  Mr.  Evans,  the  principal  forms  of  the 
tools  are  these :  tongue-shaped  flint  implements,  and  others  of  flat 
ovoid  form,  with  an  edge  all  round ;  flakes  of  flint  of  various  sizes 
and  wrought  into  different  shapes,  including  the  so-called  scrap 


46  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

ers;*  the  cores  from  which  flakes  have  been  struck;  and  stones 
which  have  been  used  as  hammers  or  pounders.  Besides  these,  a 
few  pins,  harpoons,  and  needles  of  bone  have  been  discovered. 


BONE   IMPLEMENTS   FKOM  KENt's   CAVEKN  (NATUKAIj   SIZE). 

1.  Fragment  of  Harpoon-head.    3.  Pin.    3.  Fragment  of  Needle. 

With  the  exception  of  the  hippopotamus  and  the  musk-ox, 
the  fauna  of  Kent's  cavern  comprises  all  extinct  species  already 
enumerated  as  occurring  in  drift  gravels,  together  with  a  number 
of  qtiadrupeds  still  existing  in  Europe,  like  the  reindeer,  stag, 
wolf,  fox,  glutton,  and  various  rodents ;  yet  the  dog,  roe,  sheep, 
goat,  common  ox,  pig,  and  rabbit  are  wanting.  Among  the  most 
interesting  remains  taken  from  beneath  the  stalagmite  of  Kent's 
cavern  may  be  counted  a  few  teeth  of  the  sabre-toothed  tiger 
(Machairodus  latidens),  which  were  found  by  Mr.  MacEnery  as 
well  as  during  the  later  exploration.  This  genus  appears  first  in 
the  middle  tertiary  formations  of  Europe.  Mr.  Evans  concludes, 
from  the  number  and  character  of  the  tools,  which  bear  in  many 
cases  the  distinct  traces  of  their  use,  from  the  presence  of  charcoal 
and  charred  bones  below  the  stalagmite,  and  from  various  other 
circumstances,  that  the  cave  was,  during  the  accumulation  of  the 
bone-earth,  at  all  events  from  time  to  time,  the  habitation  of  man. 

The  Brixham  cavo,  also  situated  near  Torquay,  was  accident- 
ally discovered  in  1858,  and  a  committee  of  prominent  geologists 
procured  the  means  for  a  thorough  exploration,  which  was  con- 

*  This  class  of  implements  will  be  described  in  another  chapter. 


THE  CAVES.  47 

ducted  by  Mr.  Pengelly.  The  cave  chiefly  consists  of  a  succession 
of  galleries  of  no  great  width,  which  were  either  entirely  or  part- 
ly filled  with  gravel,  bones,  and  mud.  At  the  top  there  occurred 
a  layer  of  stalagmite  from  one  to  fifteen  inches  thick ;  next  be- 
low was  loam  or  bone-earth,  of  a  red  color,  from  one  foot  to  fifteen 
feet  in  thickness;  and  at  the  bottom  lay  gravel  containing  many 
rounded  pebbles.  This  stratum  being  probed  in  some  places 
was  found  to  exceed  the  thickness  of  twenty  feet.  The  layer  of 
bone -earth  inclosed  numerous  mammalian  remains,  constituting 
a  fauna  almost  identical  with  that  of  Kent's  cavern.  No  human 
remains  were  found,  but  a  number  of  worked  flints  of  antique 
forms  occurred  in  the  lower  part  of  the  bone- earth,  and  some 
of  them  even  in  the  underlying  gravel.  In  the  loam  was  discov- 
ered, in  close  proximity  to  a  flint  implement,  the  left  hind-leg  of 
a  bear,  every  bone  being  in  its  natural  place,  which  proves  that 
the  parts  of  the  limb  were  still  connected  when  it  was  brought 
to  the  cave.  According  to  Mr.  Pengelly,  the  deposit  in  the  cave 
is  probably  owing  to  the  transporting  agency  of  water,  in  which 
case  a  valley  seventy-five  feet  in  depth,  which  now  runs  in  front 
of  the  cave,  could  not  then  have  existed,  but  must  have  been  sub- 
sequently excavated. 

Space  does  not  permit  us  to  describe  other  English  caves — 
for  instance,  the  Wokey  hyena  den,  near  "Wells,  which,  it  seems, 
was  tenanted  at  different  times  by  hyenas  and  men,  and  has 
yielded  some  oval -shaped  flint  implements  of  the  Abbeville 
type;  nor  can  we  attempt  to  enlarge  on  the  bone-caves  of  the 
European  continent,  considering  that  other  classes  of  caves  will 
yet  be  brought  to  the  reader's  notice.  Cave  researches,  we  may 
state  in  this  place,  are  progressing  with  constantly  increased 
energy  in  Europe,  giving  rise  to  a  literature  of  monographs  and 
larger  works  that  has  already  reached  an  almost  bewildering  ex- 
tent. The  results,  however,  present  only  local  differences,  while, 
on  the  whole,  the  conclusions  arrived  at  are  the  same,  namely, 


48  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

that  in  times  anteceding  any  historical  record  or  tradition  tribes 
of  savage  men  lived  in  certain  districts  of  Europe  contemporane- 
ously with  various  species  of  animals  which  have  either  become 
extinct,  or  have  migrated  to  other  parts  of  Europe,  or  even  to 
other  continents. 

The  various  animal  remains  and  those  of  man  discovered  in 
the  bone-earth  of  a  cave  may  not  always  belong  to  the  same 
epoch,  especially  in  cases  where  water  has  been  the  means  of 
their  transportation.  A  flood,  it  may  be  argued,  will  sweep 
from  the  surface  any  thing  not  too  heavy  to  be  carried  away 
by  it ;  in  places  it  will  tear  up  the  ground,  and  disentomb  bones 
of  animals  that  died  long  ago,  or  will  remove,  perhaps,  remains 
of  man,  together  with  implements  made  by  him,  or  with  the 
bones  of  animals  that  perished  either  long  before  or  long  after 
the  time  of  his  existence.  Thus  it  may  have  happened  that  re- 
mains of  various  periods  became  commingled  in  the  mud  of  the 
same  cave.  In  such  cases  the  state  of  preservation  of  the  bones 
themselves  affords  the  best  guidance  io  judging  of  their  relative 
antiquity.  The  human  bones  found  by  Dr.  Schmerling  in  the 
Belgian  caves  resembled  in  color,  weight,  and  chemical  condition 
perfectly  those  of  the  extinct  and  still  living  mammalia  associated 
with  them ;  and  hence  the  explorer  concluded,  and  no  one  now 
doubts,  that  these  human  and  animal  remains  belong  to  the  same 
period.  Various  other  circumstances  must  be  taken  into  consid- 
eration. The  bones  of  extinct  animals  found  in  caves  are  often 
split  lengthwise,  evidently  not  by  animal  agency,  but  by  that  of 
man,  who  thus  opened  them  in  order  to  extract  the  marrow — a 
method  still  practiced  by  modern  savages.  At  other  times  these 
bones  bear  striae,  or  cuts,  that  could  not  have  been  produced  by 
the  teeth  of  wild  animals,  but  must  be  ascribed  to  flint  knives 
employed  in  detaching  the  flesh.  The  flint  tools  themselves, 
which  occur  commingled  with  the  bones  in  caves  as  well  as  in 
river  gravels,  are  quite  peculiar  in  shape  and  workmanship,  differ- 


THE  CAVES. 


49 


ing  in  many  respects  from  those  of  the  later  or  neolithic  period  of 
the  Stone  Age;  and  the  animal  remains  sometimes  found  with 
these  more  finished  instruments  invariably  belong  to  a  fauna 
identical  with  that  of  historical  times.  We  shall  have  occasion 
to  bring  forth  yet  stronger  evidences. 


SECTION  OF   THE    GROTTO    OF  AUKIGNAC. 


The  prehistoric  tribes  of  Europe,  as  we  have  observed,  some- 
times buried  or  deposited  their  dead  in  caves.  Such  a  primitive 
place  of  sepulture  was  a  small  grotto  in  a  limestone  hill  near 
Aurignac,  in  the  Department  of  the  Haute- Garonne,  Southern 
France.  It  is  situated  about  forty  feet  above  the  valley,  through 
which  a  rivulet  flows,  and  in  front  of  it  there  extends  a  small 
terrace  somewhat  sloping  toward  the  valley.  The  entrance  to 
this  grotto  was  formerly  hidden  by  a  talus  of  small  stones  and 
earth,  which  the  rain  probably  had  washed  down  the  slope  of 
the  hill.  Sportsmen,  however,  knew  that  there  was  at  this  place 
a  hole  into  which  the  rabbits  escaped  when  pursued  by  dogs. 
One  day  in  1852,  a  laborer,  employed  to  repair  the  neighboring 
road,  introduced  his  arm  into  the  rabbit-hole  and  drew  out  from 
it  a  large  human  bone.  Suspecting  that  the  hole  communicated 
with  a  cave,  he  set  to  work  digging  a  trench  through  the  talus, 
and  after  a  few  hours'  labor  he  found  himself  opposite  a  large 

4 


50  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

slab  of  rock,  placed  vertically,  which  closed  the  opening  of  the 
grotto.  Having  removed  the  slab,  he  looked  into  a  small  vaulted 
recess  filled  wdth  human  bones,  among  which  were  several  entire 
skulls.  This  unusual  occurrence  created  some  excitement  in  the 
community,  and  the  Mayor  of  Aurignac,  Dr.  Amiel,  therefore  or- 
dered all  the  bones  to  be  re-interred  in  the  parish  cemetery ;  but, 
being  a  physician,  he  first  ascertained,  by  counting  the  correspond- 
ing bones,  that  they  constituted  the  skeletons  of  about  seventeen 
individuals  of  both  sexes  and  all  ages,  and,  further,  that  the  adults 
must  have  been  persons  of  small  stature.  Unfortunately  these 
human  remains  are  lost  to  science;  for  in  1860, when  M. Edward 
Lartet,  a  distinguished  paleontologist,  visited  Aurignac  with  a 
view  to  investigate  the  particulars  of  the  discovery,  the  village 
sexton  was  unable  to  indicate  the  place  where  he  had  interred 
the  bones.  M.  Lartet,  not  discouraged  by  this  failure,  determined 
to  search  the  remaining  deposits  outside  and  inside  the  vault, 
and  hired  for  this  purpose  workmen,  whom  he  superintended 
during  their  digging  operations.  When  these  were  finished,  his 
observations  resulted  in  the  conclusion  that  the  grotto  had  served 
as  a  place  of  sepulture,  while  on  the  small  terrace  in  front  of 
it  funeral  banquets  had  been  held  by  the  relatives  and  friends 
of  the  departed.     His  views  were  based  on  the  following  facts : 

Outside  of  the  grotto  there  extended  over  an  area  of  six  or 
seven  square  yards  a  layer  of  ashes  and  charcoal  from  six  to 
eight  inches  thick,  which  thinned  off  toward  the  vault,  not  actual- 
ly reaching  it.  This  layer  rested  on  the  natural  rock  formation, 
and  indicated  the  fire-place  where  the  repasts  were  prepared 
and  eaten.  It  contained  broken,  burned,  and  gnawed  bones  of 
extinct  and  recent  quadrupeds,  also  rude  hearth-stones,  reddened 
by  heat,  and  numerous  works  of  art,  but  no  osseous  remains  of 
man.  Above  this  stratum  lay  a  deposit  of  rubbish  with  simi- 
lar contents  and  a  few  scattered  cinders.  M.  Lartet  identified 
the  bones  of  no  less  than  nineteen  species  of  carnivorous  and 


THE  CAVES.  51 

herbivorous  animals,  those  of  the  latter  being  most  numerous. 
There  were  remains  of  the  cave- bear,  brown  bear  (?),  badger, 
polecat,  cave-lion,  wild  cat,  cave-hyena,  wolf,  fox,  mammoth  (two 
molars  and  a  heel -bone),  woolly  rhinoceros  (a  young  animal), 
horse,  ass  (?),  wild  boar,  gigantic  Irish  deer,  stag,  roebuck,  rein- 
deer, and  aurochs.  The  fox,  horse,  reindeer,  and  aurochs  were 
represented  by  many  individuals,  and  seem  to  have  chiefly  served 
as  the  food  of  those  savage  feasters.  The  bones  containing  mar- 
row had  been  split  open  by  man  for  its  extraction,  many  of  them 
being  also  burned.  The  spongy  parts  were  wanting,  having 
been  gnawed  off  by  wild  beasts,  doubtless  by  prowling  hyenas, 
which  fed  on  the  remnants  of  the  meals.  The  bones  of  a  young 
rhinoceros  had  been  broken  and  gnawed  in  this  manner.  On 
many  bones  could  be  perceived  the  cuts  produced  by  the  flint 
implements  used  in  removing  the  flesh.  These  remains  were  al- 
most exclusively  obtained  from  the  deposits  extending  before 
the  entrance  of  the  grotto.  The  bones  found  inside  of  it,  in  a 
layer  of  loose  earth  or  rubbish,  generally  exhibited  no  traces  of 
having  been  gnawed  or  scraped,  the  only  exception  being  a  cal- 
caneum^  or  heel -bone,  of  the  mammoth,  of  which  animal  no  re- 
mains excepting  this  bone  and  two  molars  were  found.  The 
rubbish  in  the  grotto  yielded  nearly  all  the  bones  of  a  cave- 
bear's  leg,  close  together  and  uninjured,  also  the  artificially 
shaped  and  perforated  tooth  of  an  animal  of  the  same  kind, 
teeth  of  the  cave-lion,  and  some  tusks  of  the  wild  boar.  Hence 
it  was  inferred  that  those  ancient  hunters  were  in  the  habit  of 
entombing  trophies  of  the  chase  and  food  with  their  dead,  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  custom  that  was  and  still  is  common  among 
many  tribes  of  savages. 

The  articles  fashioned  by  inan  which  were  obtained  from  the 
deposits  in  the  vault  and  outside  of  it  consisted  of  numerous  flint 
flakes  or  knives,  sling-stones,  chips,  a  flint  core  or  nucleus  from 
which  flakes  had  been  split,  and  one  of  those  flat  round  stones 


52  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

with  cavities  on  both  sides  supposed  to  have  been  used  in  mak- 
ing flint  tools.  Among  other  instruments,  further,  may  be  men- 
tioned arrow-heads  without  barbs,  made  of  reindeer  horn,  and  a 
well-shaped  and  sharply  pointed  bodkin  cut  from  the  horn  of 
the  roe-deer.  Lastly,  there  were  found  with  the  skeletons  in  the 
vault  eighteen  small  perforated  disks,  made  of  a  kind  of  cockle- 
shell, or  Gardium,  which  doubtless  had  originally  been  strung 
together  for  the  purpose  of  ornament.* 

What  we  have  just  stated  is  a  resume  of  the  account  given 
by  M.  Lartet  after  his  first  exploration  of  the  Aurignac  grotto. 
He  subsequently  revisited  that  locality,  and  continued  his  re- 
searches, in  the  course  of  which  he  obtained  results  not  alto- 
gether in  keeping,  as  it  appears  to  us,  with  his  former  experi- 
ences. The  number  of  skeletons  found  in  the  cave,  the  stone 
slab  by  which  it  was  protected,  and  various  other  circumstances 
plainly  indicate  its  use  as  a  burial-place;  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  terrace  in  front  of  the  cave  was  often  resorted  to 
by  savage  hunters,  who  feasted  there  on  the  spoils  of  the  chase. 
Yet  the  burials  may  be  of  much  later  date  than  the  feasts.  "  It 
is  very  much  to  be  regretted,"  said  Sir  John  Lubbock  ten  years 
ago,  "  that  M.  Lartet  was  not  present  when  the  place  was  first 
examined;  for  it  must  be  confessed  that  if  he  had  seen  the  de- 
posits before  they  were  disturbed,  we  should  have  been  able  to 
feel  more  confidence  that  the  human  skeletons  belonged  to  the 
same  period  as  the  other  remains."  In  1870,  M.  Cartailhac,  of 
Toulouse,  paid  a  visit  to  Aurignac,  "  in  order  to  see  the  cele- 
brated grotto,  and  to  collect  such  objects  as  might  have  been  left 
there."  In  examining  the  cave,  he  noticed  a  difference  in  the 
color  of  its  walls,  from  which  he  judged  that  the  lower  de- 
posits must  have  been  of  a  yellow  color,  and  covered  by  a  layer 


*  Quite  similar  flat  shell-beads  were  formerly  made  by  the  aborigines  of 
North  America. 


THE  CAVES. 


53 


of  much  lighter  tint ;  and  while  minutely  searching  the  crevices 
of  the  cave,  he  found  in  the  darker  ground  a  tooth  of  the  rhinoc- 
eros, one  of  the  reindeer,  and  fractured  bones  of  the  cave -bear. 
The  level  of  the  higher  deposit,  on  the  other  hand,  yielded  some 
small  bones  of  living  wild  animals  and  of  man,  and  also  a 
pierced  disk  of  Cardium  and  a  fragment  of  pottery.  The  lower 
deposit  of  the  cave,  it  would  thus  appear,  corresponded  with  that 
outside  of  it,  while  the  layer  inclosing  the  human  skeletons  was 
formed  at  a  subsequent  time.  However  that  may  be,  the  chief 
result  of  M.  Lartet's  discoveries  remains  intact :  he  has  furnished 
another  proof  that  man  was  the  contemporary  of  extinct  animals, 
which  served  him  for  food,  and  that  consequently  the  age  of 
mankind  reaches  back  to  a  very  remote  period. 


THB  NEANDERTHAL    SKULL  (siDE   VIEW). 


THE   ENGIS    SKULL  (siDE   VIEw). 


Among  the  thus  far  discovered  human  remains  referable  to 
the  far-distant  epoch  under  notice,  the  Neanderthal  skull,  already 
mentioned,  and  that  of  the  Engis  cavern  have  chiefly  excited  the 
interest  of  the  learned,  and  have  caused  much  speculation  con- 
cerning the  physical  and  intellectual  qualities  of  the  primeval  in- 
habitants of  Europe.  The  first-named  skull,  or  rather  skull  frag- 
ment— for  it  consists  only  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  cranium — 
belonged  to  a  skeleton  which  was  found  in  1857  in  a  small 
grotto  in  the  Neanderthal,  or  Neander  valley^  not  far  from  Diis- 
seldorf,  Rhenish  Prussia.  Quarrying  operations  led  to  the  clear- 
ing of  the  grotto,  situated  about  sixty  feet  above  the  bed  of  the 


54  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

small  river  Dussel,  which  flows  through  the  valley.  It  contained 
a  horizontal  layer  of  hard  loam  intermixed  with  rolled  gravel,  a 
drift  deposit  identical  with  that  occurring  in  all  caves  of  the 
Dussel  Valley,  and  in  which  the  bones  of  extinct  quadrupeds  are 
sometimes  found  imbedded.  In  this  gravelly  loam  of  the  Nean- 
derthal grotto  the  workmen  found,  two  feet  below  the  surface,  a 
human  skeleton,  which  they  threw  out  in  an  unceremonious  way, 
and  which  would  have  been  lost  to  science  but  for  the  interfer- 
ence of  Professor  Fuhlrott,  of  Elberfeld,  who  rescued  from  total 
destruction  the  upper  part  of  the  skull,  the  thigh  and  arm  bones, 
a  collar-bone,  a  part  of  the  pelvis,  a  shoulder-blade,  and  several 
fragments  of  the  ribs.  These  remains  are  undoubtedly  of  the 
highest  antiquity,  possessing  the  same  qualities  which  character- 
ize the  bones  of  the  mammoth,  cave-bear,  etc.,  occurring  in  the 
neighboring  districts,  and  inclosed  by  the  same  kind  of  loam 
that  contained  the  skeleton.  Professors  Fuhlrott,  Vogt,  and  other 
anthropologists,  therefore,  conclude  that  the  Neanderthal  man 
lived  together  with  the  mammoth  and  other  extinct  animals  of 
the  drift  period.  The  body  probably  had  been  washed  into  the 
grotto  during  high  water.  The  skull  was  first  described  anatom- 
ically by  Professor  Schaaffhausen,  of  Bonn.  He  pointed  out  its 
enormous  ridges  above  the  orbits  of  the  eyes,  behind  which  the 
frontal  bone  is  considerably  depressed,  its  elongated,  elliptical 
shape,  narrow  and  low  forehead,  and  unusual  thickness.  The 
other  bones  of  the  skeleton  were  found  to  correspond  in  length 
to  those  of  a  European  of  middle  stature,  but  they  were  much 
stouter,  and  exhibited  a  greater  development  of  the  muscular 
ridges.  On  the  whole.  Professor  Schaaffhausen  comes  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  individual  to  whom  the  Neanderthal  skull  be- 
longed must  have  been  distinguished  by  slight  development  of 
brain  and  uncommon  strength  of  bodily  frame.  According  to 
Professor  Huxley,  the  skull  in  question  is  the  most  ape-like  of 
the  human  crania  yet  discovered,  and  Professor  Vogt  expresses 


THE  CAVES.  55 

himself  to  the  same  effect  by  stating  that  it  has  more  of  the 
simian  or  monkey  type  than  any  other  known  race  skull.  Yet 
Huxley  is  far  from  regarding  the  Neanderthal  bones  as  the  re- 
mains of  a  being  intermediate  between  man  and  apes.  At  most, 
he  thinks,  they  demonstrate  the  existence  of  a  man  whose  skull 
may  be  said  to  revert  somewhat  to  the  pithecoid  or  ape  type. 
Both  Huxley  and  Vogt  detect  in  the  Neanderthal  skull  an  ap- 
proximation to  the  cranial  formation  of  the  Australian.* 

The  Engis  skull,  likewise  fragmentary,  but  more  complete  than 
the  one  just  described,  was  found,  as  we  have  stated,  five  feet  deep 
imbedded  in  a  breccia,  in  juxtaposition  with  remains  of  the  rhi- 
noceros, reindeer,  and  horse.  This  skull,  it  will  be  noticed  by  a 
comparison  of  the  drawings  presented  on  page  53,  indicates  a  far 
higher  type  than  that  of  the  Neanderthal.  According  to  Huxley, 
"  there  is  no  mark  of  degradation  about  any  part  of  its  structure. 
It  is,  in  fact,  a  fair  average  human  skull,  which  might  have  be- 
longed to  a  philosopher,  or  might  have  contained  the  thoughtless 
brain  of  a  savage." 

In  the  first  chapter  we  alluded  to  human  bones  found  by 
Messrs.  Bertrand  and  Keboux  in  the  valley  of  the  Seine,  at  Clichy, 
in  the  suburbs  of  Paris,  in  the  same  drift-beds  in  which  flint  im- 
plements of  the  oldest  or  paleolithic  types  had  been  discovered. 
The  remains,  among  them  a  skull,  occurred  seventeen  feet  below 
the  surface.  The  skull,  which  exhibits  marked  traces  of  inferior- 
ity, being  narrow  and  slanting  from  the  front  to  the  back,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  that  of  a  woman. 

Among  the  latest  discoveries  of  remains  of  prehistoric  man 
are  those  made  by  M.  Riviere,  who  found  in  1872,  in  one  of  the 
caves  of  Mentone,  near  Nice,  France,  the  almost  entire  skeleton 
of  a  man   above  middle  size,  imbedded  twenty  feet  below  the 

*  It  should  be  stated  that  some  anthropologists,  among  them  Dr.  Barnard 
Davis  and  Professor  Virchow,  consider  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  Neanderthal 
skull  as  a  deformity  caused  by  disease. 


56  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

surface  of  the  deposit.  The  full  day -light  reaches  the  farthest 
end  of  the  cave,  a  circumstance  which  enabled  the  discoverer  to 
have  the  skeleton  carefully  photographed,  just  as  it  appeared 
after  the  removal  of  the  superincumbent  accumulations.  The 
engravings  made  after  this  photograph  present  the  skeleton 
stretched  out  in  an  attitude  of  repose,  the  head  apparently  sup- 
ported by  the  left  hand,  as  if  the  man  had  been  surprised  by 
death  during  sleep.  The  bones  and  the  surrounding  earth  were 
of  a  reddish  color,  produced  by  oxide  of  iron.  Many  pierced 
shells  and  teeth  of  the  stag  covered  the  skull,  doubtless  forming 
originally  a  chaplet  or  some  other  head  ornament.  A  bone  im- 
plement lay  across  the  forehead,  and  two  spear-heads  of  flint  were 
placed  below  the  occiput.  Remains  of  the  urus,  cave-bear,  cave- 
lion,  cave-hyena,  woolly  rhinoceros,  wolf,  stag,  chamois,  and  others, 
together  with  many  marine  and  land  shells,  were  found  in  the 
deposits  above  the  skeleton;  also  chipped  flint  implements  in 
great  number,  but  neither  ground  tools  nor  pottery.  The  skele- 
ton, now  in  the  collection  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  in  Paris, 
shows  no  marked  approximation  to  the  simian  type,  excepting, 
perhaps,  the  tibicB,  or  shin-bones,  which  are  more  flattened  than  in 
the  European  of  the  present  time.  The  skull  is  of  a  decidedly 
elongated  form,  exhibiting  a  somewhat  narrow  forehead. 

Professor  Vogt  draws  attention  to  the  extreme  scarceness  of 
remains  of  extinct  animals  in  this  cave,  conjecturing  their  presence 
might  be  owing  to  a  secondary  deposit. 

In  1873,  M.  Riviere  discovered  in  another  cave  of  the  neigh- 
borhood a  second  human  skeleton,  less  complete  than  the  one  ex- 
humed by  him  in  the  preceding  year,  but  likewise  stained  by  ox- 
ide of  iron,  and  decked  with  shell  ornaments.  A  few  unpolished 
flint  implements  lay  near  this  skeleton. 

Later  in  1873,  and  in  the  following  year,  he  further  succeeded 
in  finding  in  caves  near  Mentone  three  additional  skeletons,  two 
of  them  belonging  to  children,  the  other  to  an  adult  individual. 


THE  CAVES.  57 

The  head  of  the  latter  was  surrounded  with  pierced  sea- shells 
and  teeth  of  the  stag,  originally  constituting  an  ornamental  head- 
dress. There  were  also  found  the  remains  of  a  necklace  and  of 
bracelets  of  shells  and  teeth.  Curiously  enough,  this  skeleton, 
too,  was  stained  with  oxide  of  iron,  like  those  previously  discov- 
ered by  M.  Riviere,  who  thinks  that  the  covering  of  the  corpse 
with  micaceous  specular  iron  formed  one  of  the  funeral  customs 
of  the  people  who  deposited  their  dead  in  these  caves.  With 
this  skeleton,  which  belonged  to  a  vigorous  individual  of  good 
stature,  and  resembled  in  its  details  that  first  discovered  by  M. 
Riviere,  were  found  a  tooth  of  a  cave -bear,  bones  of  ruminants, 
pachyderms,  and  rodents  (not  specialized  in  the  report  before 
us),  and  a  number  of  shells  of  edible  marine  moUusks ;  also  im- 
plements of  bone  and  stone,  the  latter  merely  chipped,  and  most- 
ly consisting  of  sandstone,  limestone,  and  other  materials,  but 
rarely  of  flint,  as  in  the  preceding  cases.  No  implements  or  or- 
naments accompanied  the  skeletons  of  the  children. 

Sir  Charles  Lyell  is  of  opinion  "  that  the  time  of  inhumation 
of  the  remains  of  elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  cave-bear  in  subaerial 
breccias  at  different  altitudes  in  the  cliffs  of  the  neighborhood 
will  have  to  be  critically  ascertained  before  their  geological  bear- 
ing on  the  age  of  the  human  skeletons  can  be  finally  settled." 

Generally  speaking,  the  fauna  of  the  caves  thus  far  treated  in 
these  pages  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  river  drift,  and  the  same 
peculiarities  characterize  the  drift  implements  and  those  occur- 
ring, commingled  with  osseous  remains,  in  the  mud  of  caves.  The 
bone  and  tool  bearing  strata  of  the  drift  and  the  older  cave  de- 
posits, therefore,  may  be  assumed  to  belong  to  one  period,  pro- 
vided that  this  term  is  taken  in  its  broadest  and  most  expanded 
sense. 

In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  lead  the  reader  once  more  into 
caves,  but  into  such  as  served  as  the  regular  habitations  of  human 
beings  who  were,  to  all  appearance,  somewhat  more  advanced  and 


58  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

lived  at  a  later  period  than  the  earliest  European  tribes,  of  whom 
we  know  now  at  least  that  they  existed.  The  merit  of  having 
established  a  fact  of  such  importance  belongs  to  that  indefatiga- 
ble class  of  investigators  whose  aim  it  is  to  bring  light  into  the 
darkest  recesses  of  hoary  antiquity. 


PERFOKATKD  TOOTH  OF  A  LION.   FROM  THE  LOWEST  DEPOSIT  OF  A  GROTTO  XEAS  SOSDE,  ON 
THE  BIVEB  OLORON,  SOUTHERN  FRANCE  (NATURAL  SIZe). 


REPRESENTATION    OF  A   SIAMMOTH   ON  A  PLATE   OF   IVORY   (rEDUCED). — FROM    LA   MADELAINE. 

CHAPTER  m. 

THE   TROGLODYTES. 

There  are  two  valleys  in  France  which  have  become  localities 
of  particular  interest — we  might  almost  say  classical  ground — to 
the  student  of  prehistoric  archaeology.  One  of  them,  the  Somme 
Valley,  has  been  brought  to  the  reader's  notice  in  a  previous 
chapter ;  and  we  now  invite  him  to  follow  us  to  the  valley  of  the 
Vezere,  an  affluent  of  the  nver  Dordogne,  which  drains  a  por- 
tion of  South-western  France  known  under  the  name  of  Aqui- 
tania  in  ancient  times.  The  valley  of  the  Vezere  is  very  rich  in 
caves,  which  occur  in  the  picturesque  formations  of  cretaceous 
limestone  bordering  the  meandrous  river,  and  fonn  a  peculiar 
feature  in  its  beautiful  scenery.  These  caves,  however,  are  not 
always  such  large  halls  and  galleries  as  we  have  heretofore  de- 
scribed, but  in  some  instances  mere  hollows,  or  "rock-shelters" 
(ahris  in  French),  owing  their  origin  to  the  disintegration  of  soft 
strata  which  offered  less  resistance  to  atmospheric  influences  than 
the  harder  rocks  covering  them.  In  times  long  past,  rude  tribes 
of  hunters  and  fishers  used  these  hollowed  rocks  as  dwelling- 
places,  leaving  there  abundant  tokens  of  their  occupancy,  which 
enable  us  to  gain  a  pretty  distinct  view  of  their  mode  of  life. 
Indeed,  though  their  very  existence  was   unknown   to   us   not 


60  EABLT  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

many  years  ago,  we  are  now  in  some  respects  better  acquainted 
with  them  than  with  certain  nations  of  antiquity  whose  names 
are  inscribed  on  the  pages  of  history.  Yet  it  was  not  prehistoric 
man  alone  who  sought  the  shelter  of  these  caves.  "As  civiliza- 
tion advanced,"  says  Sir  John  Lubbock,  "  man,  no  longer  content 
with  the  natural  but  inconvenient  abode  thus  offered  to  him,  ex- 
cavated chambers  for  himself,  and  in  places  the  whole  face  of  the 
rock  is  honey-combed  with  doors  and  windows  leading  into  suits 
of  rooms,  often  in  tiers  one  above  another,  so  as  to  suggest  the 
idea  of  a  French  Petra.  In  the  troublous  times  of  the  Middle 
Ages  many  of  these  no  doubt  served  as  very  efficient  fortifica- 
tions, and  even  now  some  of  them  are  still  in  use  as  store-houses 
and  for  other  purposes.  At  Brantome  I  saw  an  old  chapel  which 
had  been  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  and  resembled  the  descriptions 
given  of  the  celebrated  rock-cut  temples  in  India." 

The  archaeological  celebrity  of  the  valley  of  the  Vez^re  is 
owing  to  a  group  of  caves  and  hollows  situated  on  both  sides 
of  the  river,  at  short  distances  from  each  other,  and  all  embraced 
in  the  Department  of  the  Dordogne.  They  were  conjointly  ex- 
plored by  M.  Edward  Lartet,  the  distinguished  French  archaeolo- 
gist previously  mentioned,  and  Mr.  Henry  Christy,  an  English 
gentleman  of  wealth  and  great  scientific  acquirements.  This 
remarkable  partnership  of  French  and  English  intelligence  and 
industry  resulted  in  the  publication  of  the  "Reliquiae  Aquitan- 
icas,"  a  comprehensive  and  richly  illustrated  work,  which,  not- 
withstanding its  Latin  title,  is  written  in  the  English  language. 
We  state  with  regret  that  both  authors  died  before  their  work 
was  completed. 

The  caves  and  rock-shelters  forming  the  group  chiefly  treated 
in  the  work  just  mentioned  are  Le  Moustier,  La  Madelaine.,  Lau- 
gerie  Haute,  Laugerie  Basse,  Gorge  cfMifer,  Les  Eyzies,  and  Cro- 
Magnon.  In  prehistoric  times  those  localities,  or  "  stations,"  as 
they  are  called,  undoubtedly  were  inhabited  by  man  for  a  very 


THE   TROGLODYTES.  61 

long  period,  during  which  the  fauna  underwent  noticeable 
changes,  at  least  in  regard  to  the  numerical  proportion  of  the 
then  existing  species  of  animals,  while  in  the  same  epoch  a  de- 
cided progress  is  traceable  in  the  mechanical  acquirements  of  man. 
So  much  can  be  inferred  from  the  animal  remains  and  works  of 
art  found  in  the  different  caves  of  the  Vezere.  Developments  of 
such  character  are  not  the  result  of  a  few  centuries,  and  hence  a 
far  greater  length  of  time  must  be  allowed  for  their  realization. 
The  people  of  whom  we  are  about  to  treat  have  been  called  cave- 
men, or  troglodytes,  because  they  selected  caves  as  their  abodes 
whenever  they  could  avail  themselves  of  such  natural  retreats. 
Yet  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  the  population  of  a  whole  dis- 
trict was  lodged  in  this  manner,  considering  that  caves  afforded 
room  only  to  a  limited  number  of  persons,  while  others  not  thus 
favored  doubtless  lived  in  rude  dwellings  of  their  own  construc- 
tion, the  traces  of  which,  of  course,  have  now  totally  disappeared. 
The  rock-shelters,  perhaps,  formed  in  some  cases  the  roofs  under 
which  huts  were  built.  Generally  speaking,  the  deposits  in  the 
caves  under  notice  consist  of  broken  bones,  pebbles,  and  articles 
of  flint,  horn,  and  bone,  intermingled  with  charcoal  in  fragments 
and  dust,  the  whole  often  being  cemented  together,  and  forming  a 
kind  of  tufa.  These  accumulations  sometimes  extend  to  a  depth 
of  eight  or  ten  feet  and  a  length  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet.  The 
cave-people  of  the  Vezere  district  were  more  advanced  and  lived 
at  a  later  period  than  the  men  whose  implements  are  found  in 
the  gravel -beds  of  the  Somme.  These  conclusions  have  been 
drawn  from  the  fauna  of  the  caves,  and  from  the  greater  skill  dis- 
played by  the  cave-dwellers  in  the  manufacture  of  their  imple- 
ments of  war  and  peace.  At  the  time  when  these  caves  served 
as  the  abodes  of  hunting  tribes,  the  mammoth,  cave-hyena,  cave- 
lion,  cave-bear,  gigantic  Irish  deer,  and  others  had  not  yet  become 
extinct,  but  had  apparently  much  decreased  in  number,  while  the 
reindeer,  which  inhabits  in  our  time  the  northernmost  portions 


62  EARLY  MAN  JN  EUROPE. 

of  Europe,  was  prevailing,  for  which  reason  this  epoch  has  been 
styled  the  Reindeer  Period  by  archaeologists.*  Together  with 
the  reindeer,  as  common  in  the  time  of  its  preponderance,  must  be 
mentioned  the  horse,  aurochs,  ibex,  and  chamois,  the  last  two  of 
which  have  now  left  the  lowlands  and  sought  refuge  in  the  more 
congenial  temperature  of  Alpine  heights.  The  Antilope  Sa/iga, 
an  animal  which  now  inhabits  portions  of  Russia  and  Asia,  be- 
longed at  that  time  to  the  fauna  of  France,  as  shown  by  a  small 
number  of  its  bones  found  by  M.  Lartet  and  others.  Remains  of 
the  mammoth  and  of  the  other  extinct  quadrupeds,  with  which 
the  reader  has  been  made  acquainted  in  the  preceding  chapters, 
are  of  very  rare  occurrence  in  these  caves.  Plates  of  the  molar 
teeth  of  the  mammoth  were  found  at  various  stations,  and  work- 
ed ivory  at  Les  Eyzies  and  La  Madelaine.  A  portion  of  a  mam- 
moth's pelvis  was  discovered  at  Laugerie  Basse,  and  the  stump 
of  a  tusk  of  this  huge  quadruped  in  the  cave  of  Cro-Magnon. 
As  paleontological  peculiarities  special  to  a  single  locality,  Lartet 
and  Christy  mention :  in  the  Moustier  cave,  the  half  of  a  lower 
jaw  of  a  hyena;  at  Les  Eyzies,  a  metacarpal  of  a  large  feline 
(probably  Felis  spelced),  bearing  the  marks  of  scraping,  such  as 
are  found  on  the  bones  of  the  herbivores  eaten  by  the  cave-peo- 
ple ;  at  Laugerie  Haute,  two  molars  of  the  gigantic  Irish  deer ; 
and  at  Laugerie  Basse,  the  phalanges  of  a  great  bear,  marked 
with  notches  made  by  a  cutting  instrument.  The  scarcity  of  re- 
mains of  extinct  animals  would  render  it  doubtful,  indeed,  wheth- 
er the  cave-dwellers  of  the  Vezere  co-existed  with  them,  if  there 
were  no  other  evidences,  yet  to  be  brought  forward,  which  settle 
that  point  in  a  conclusive  manner. 

The  animals  most  frequently  hunted  by  the  troglodytes,  and 
furnishing  their  principal  food,  were  the  reindeer  and  the  horse. 


*  This  terra  is  not  generally  adopted,  but  we  retain  it  for  the  sake  of 
classification. 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  63 

the  first -named  quadruped  being  of  additional  value  to  them  on 
account  of  its  antlers,  which  they  worked  very  skillfully  into 
implements  of  various  descriptions.  It  appears,  however,  that 
they  fed  on  every  kind  of  animal  they  could  obtain  by  force 
or  cunning,  not  excepting  carnivores,  such  as  wolves  and  foxes. 
Remains  of  the  stag  are  said  to  be  rare,  and  still  rarer  those  of 
the  wild  boar.  Bones  of  birds  and  fishes,  more  especially  of  the 
salmon  species,  occur  abundantly  at  some  stations.  It  does  not 
appear  that  these  people  kept  any  domesticated  animals :  neither 
the  reindeer  nor  the  horse  seems  to  have  been  tamed  by  them, 
though  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  on  that  point.  They 
had  no  sheep,  goats,  or  cattle,  and  there  were  no  dogs  to  protect 
the  cave-men's  rude  dwellings,  or  to  share  with  them  the  excite- 
ment of  the  chase.  The  absence  of  the  dog,  in  particular,  may  be 
inferred  from  the  appearance  of  the  bones  occurring  in  the  cave- 
refuse  ;  for  this  animal,  according  to  the  experiences  of  Professor 
Steenstrup,  eats  only  the  soft,  spongy  parts  of  bones,  especially  of 
bird -bones,  leaving  the  remainder  uninjured.  No  bones  muti- 
lated in  this  manner  have  been  found  in  the  caves  under  notice, 
which  fact  furnishes  additional  evidence  that  the  cave-people  kept 
no  tamed  dogs.  To  Professor  Vogt  the  absence  of  the  dog  is  sug- 
gestive of  the  non-domestication  of  the  reindeer,  which,  he  thinks, 
can  not  be  subdued  by  man,  and  properly  guarded,  without  the 
assistance  of  that  animal. 

The  caves  were  the  banqueting  halls  of  their  inhabitants,  and 
here  the  refuse  of  the  meals  accumulated,  which  now  affords  us 
the  means  of  studying  the  bill  of  fare.  The  backbones  of  large 
quadrupeds,  such  as  the  horse  and  the  ox,  are  not  found  in  the 
caves,  probably  because  these  animals,  being  too  heavy  for  trans- 
portation, were  dismembered  on  the  spot  where  they  had  been 
slain,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the  extremities  with  their  fleshy 
parts,  together  with  the  heads,  separately  to  the  rock -dwellings. 
This  procedure  was  dispensed  with  when  the  game  consisted  of 


64 


EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 


a  reindeer  or  other  less  bulky  quadruped.  Such  animals  were 
brought  home  entire,  as  shown  by  the  frequent  occurrence  of 
their  complete  skeletons  in  the  refuse  of  the  caves.     Like  other 


FLINT   IMPLEMENTS   FROM   THE    DORDOGNE    CAVES  (hALF    SIZE). 

1.  Flake  (Gorge  d'Enfer).  2.  Almond-shaped  blade  (Le  Moustier).  3,  4,  Scrapers  (Cro-Magnon). 
5,  9.  Knife-shaped  implements  (Laugerie  Basse  and  Les  Eyzies).  6,  7.  Piercing  implements 
(Laugerie  Basse).     8.  Arrow-head  (Laugerie  Haute).     10.  Nucleus,  or  core  (Les  Eyzies). 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  65 

savages,  the  troglodytes  used  to  break  the  bones  and  heads  of 
the  animals  they  had  killed,  in  order  to  obtain  the  marrow  and 
brain.*  Though  charcoal  abounds  in  the  caves,  as  we  have 
stated,  the  bones  generally  show  no  marks  of  roasting — a  circum- 
stance rather  puzzling  to  those  who  have  speculated  on  the  cave- 
men's method  of  cooking.  Having  no  vessels  of  clay,  it  has  been 
thought  they  used  to  cook  their  meat  in  wooden  troughs  filled 
with  water,  which  they  brought  to  the  boiling-point  by  means  of 
heated  stones  thrown  into  it-f  Pebbles  that  might  have  served 
for  this  purpose  are  numerous  in  the  caves.  The  French  anthro- 
pologist, Dr.  Paul  Broca,  thinks  it  much  more  probable  that  they 
cooked  their  food  under  the  ashes,  like  certain  savages  of  our  own 
time.  No  traces  of  vegetable  food  have  thus  far  been  discovered ; 
they  subsisted,  it  appears,  chiefly  by  hunting  and  fishing.  Bones 
gnawed  by  animals  are  not  found  in  the  caves  themselves,  doubt- 
less because  the  troglodytes  had  the  means  of  closing  in  the 
night,  or  while  absent,  the  entrances  of  their  abodes,  and  to  pro- 
tect them  from  the  invasion  of  wolves,  foxes,  and  other  prowling 
beasts  of  prey. 

The  reindeer  hunters  of  the  Dordogne  Department  displayed, 
as  has  been  stated,  much  more  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  im- 

*  The  Prairie  Indians,  after  a  buflfalo  hunt,  skillfully  open  the  large  bones 
of  these  animals  and  extract  the  marrow,  which  they  deem  a  great  delicacy. 
They  use  the  brain  of  the  buffalo^  elk,  deer,  etc.,  as  a  softening  material  in  the 
preparation  of  skins. 

f  This  practice  prevailed  among  several  North  American  tribes  who  were 
unacquainted  with  the  manufacture  of  pottery.  The  Assinneboins,  for  in- 
stance, cooked  their  game  in  its  own  hide.  Having  taken  off  the  skin,  they 
pressed  it  down  into  a  hole  dug  for  the  purpose,  thus  forming  a  receptacle 
that  would  hold  water.  In  this  most  primitive  kettle  they  boiled  the  meat 
by  immersing  red-hot  stones.  Among  the  Scotch  Highlanders,  even  in  the 
time  of  Bruce,  the  raw  hide  of  an  animal,  stretched  on  four  sticks,  was  used 
to  form  the  bag  in  which  the  flesh  was  seethed.  They  employed  also  wood- 
en vessels,  hollowed  by  the  dirk,  for  the  purpose  of  heating  water  by  means 
of  hot  pebbles  thrown  into  it. 

5 


66  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

plements  than  tlie  people  whose  relics  are  found  in  the  river 
gravels  and  in  the  cave  deposits  of  earliest  date.  Flint  contin- 
ued to  be  the  kind  of  stone  almost  exclusively  used  by  them; 
but  the  articles  made  of  this  material  show  a  great  variety  of 
forms,  and  sometimes  a  finish  which  almost  assimilates  them  to 
the  manufactures  of  the  later  or  neolithic  phase  of  the  Stone 
Age.  Yet  the  people  of  the  Vezere  Valley  were  still  ignorant 
of  the  art  of  grinding  and  polishing  stone  implements,  no  articles 
thus  improved  having  been  found  in  the  cave  deposits,  which 
consequently  belong  to  the  paleolithic  period,  when  chipping 
alone  was  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  instruments.*  The 
accumulations  in  the  caves  contain,  according  to  Lartet  and 
Christy,  "  innumerable  chips  and  countless  thousands  of  blades 
of  flint,  varying  in  size  from  lance-heads,  long  enough  and  stout 
enough  to  have  been  used  against  the  largest  animals,  down  to 
lancets  not  larger  than  the  blade  of  a  penknife,  and  piercing  in- 
struments of  the  size  of  the  smallest  bodkin."  Quite  numerous 
are  the  so-called  nuclei  or  cores,  that  is,  blocks  of  flint  from  which 
narrow  flakes  have  been  struck  off  by  carefully  directed  blows, 
producing  facets  that  give  the  objects  an  almost  prismatic  appear- 
ance. Some  of  the  cores  exhibit  ten  or  twelve  facets.  The  pres- 
ence of  these  nuclei  of  course  indicates  that  flint  implements  were 
made  in  the  caves.  The  flakes  detached  from  these  blocks  are 
usually  somewhat  curved,  owing  to  the  peculiar  fracture  of  flint, 
and  sharp  on  both  sides.  They  were  either  left  in  their  original 
state  and  employed  in  various  ways,  or  chipped  into  the  form 
intended  by  the  maker,  to  serve  for  cutting,  sawing,  and  other 
purposes.  Some  of  these  implements  terminate  in  stems,  or  tangs, 
doubtless  for  insertion  into  handles  of  wood,  horn,  or  bone.  The 
most  delicate  articles  of  flint  made  by  the  Dordogne  cave-men 

*  In.  some  caves,  however,  pebbles  with  shallow  cavities  produced  by 
grinding  have  been  found.     They  will  be  described  hereafter. 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  67 

were  those  destined  to  serve  as  piercers  or  awls.  We  must  not 
omit  to  mention  the  scrapers,  which  have  occurred  quite  frequent- 
ly at  different  stations,  as,  for  instance,  at  Cro-Magnon.  They 
are  oblong  flakes,  one  end  of  which  is  brought  to  a  rounded 
beveled  edge  by  a  series  of  small  blows.  The  lower  side  always 
presents  the  unaltered  fracture  of  the  flint.  The  part  opposite 
the  curved  edge  is  often  worked  into  a  sort  of  handle,  which 
gives  the  implements  a  somewhat  spoon -like  appearance;  oth- 
ers have  both  ends  rounded,  and  are  then  designated  as  double 
scrapers.  Kepresentations  of  both  kinds  are  given.  These  tools, 
which  occur  in  almost  all  countries  of  the  world,  are  supposed  to 
have  been  used  for  scraping  the  skins  to  be  made  into  garments 
or  other  coverings.  Their  shape  certainly  fits  them  well  for  that 
purpose  ;  but  they  may  also  have  served  in  other  operations. 
The  Eskimos  employ  to  this  day  quite  similar  stone  scrapers, 
set  in  well-shaped  handles  of  ivory  or  wood.  Flint  arrow-heads 
have  been  found  at  different  stations,  a  fact  proving  that  the 
cave-dwellers  were  acquainted  with  the  use  of  the  bow.  Well- 
defined  spear-heads  of  flint  are  not  wanting,  and  at  the  cave  of 
Le  Moustier  large  almond-shaped  blades,  chipped  only  on  one 
of  the  flat  sides,  were  frequent,  and  are  supposed  to  have  formed 
the  armatures  of  spears.  This  station,  further,  is  remarkable  for 
implements  resembling  much  the  so-called  hatchets  of  the  Somme 
Valley,  and  for  a  peculiar  class  of  cutting  implements  or  "  chop- 
pers," with  a  single  broad  convex  edge,  and  adapted  by  a  thick 
back  to  be  held  in  the  hand.  They  are  thought  to  have  been 
used  for  breaking  the  marrow-bones.  The  flint  implements  of  Le 
Moustier  somewhat  approach  the  drift  types,  and  are  generally 
of  a  ruder  character  than  the  chipped  articles  found  at  the  other 
stations,  which  fact,  in  connection  with  various  other  circum- 
stances, renders  it  almost  certain  that  this  cave  was  inhabited  by 
man  at  a  much  earlier  epoch  than  any  other  of  the  group  under 
notice.     Round  stones,  much  battered,  are  frequent  in  the  rock- 


68 


EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 


dwellings,  and  represent  the  hammers  of  the  troglodytes.  A 
pebble  of  suitable  size  and  weight  was  the  primitive  hammer  of 
man  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

1    „^^^ 


HORN  AND   BONE   IMPLEMENTS   FROM   THE   DORDOGNE   CAVES  (NEARLY   HALF   SIZB). 

1,  2,  3,  4.  Barbed  points  of  reindeer  horn,  used  as  heads  of  lances,  harpoons,  and  perhaps  of  ar- 
rows (La  Madelaine).  5,  6.  Bone  awls  (Cro-Magnon).  7.  Needle  of  reindeer  horn  (La  Ma- 
delaine).     8.  Whistle  of  reindeer  bone  (Laugerie  Basse). 

The  implements  of  horn  and  bone,  which  evince  still  more 
skill  and  patient  labor  than  the  flint  tools  just  described,  were 
likewise  manufactured  in  the  caves,  many  unfinished  articles  of 
this  class  having  been  discovered  in  the  rubbish.  Among  such 
relics  we  will  mention  chisels,  awls,  needles,  round  and  tapering 
lance-heads  (with  beveled  lower  ends  for  insertion  into  wooden 
shafts),  harpoon- shaped  lance -heads,  barbed  arrow-heads,  small 
spoon -like  instruments  (supposed  to  have  served  for  extracting 
the  marrow  from  bones),  whistles,  and  various  other  objects,  the 
use  of  which  is  not  always  quite  evident.  These  tools  and 
weapons  are  mostly  cut  from  reindeer  horn,  a  material  of  great 
hardness,  and  therefore  well  fitted  for  the  purposes  to  which  it 
was  applied.  Illustrations  of  the  principal  forms  are  given.  We 
would  particularly  draw  the  reader's  attention  to  the  armatures 
with  barbs  either  on  one  side  or  on  both,  the  manufacture  of 
which  must  have  been  the  result  of  long-continued  painful  labor, 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  69 

considering  the  inadequate  flint  tools  by  means  of  which  the 
work  was  executed.  What  an  amount  of  sawing, -cutting,  and 
scraping  was  necessary  to  produce,  for  instance,  the  figured  im- 
plement with  barbs  on  both  sides!  These  harpoon -like  arma- 
tures, attached  to  shafts,  may  have  served  both  for  hunting  and 
for  spearing  fish,  perhaps  also  for  war,  since  it  can  not  be  sup- 
posed that  the  troglodytes  lived  always  in  harmony.  Near  the 
tapering  lower  end  of  the  barbed  weapons  will  be  noticed  little 
eminences  or  knobs,  perhaps  designed  to  aid  in  fixing  the  imple- 
ment in  the  shaft.  It  also  has  been  suggested  that  the  troglo- 
dytes employed  harpoons  with  loosely  inserted  heads,  which  be- 
came detached  from  the  pole  after  the  fish  had  been  struck.  In 
this  case  the  knob  may  have  served  for  the  attachment  of  a 
line.  Harpoons  of  this  description  are  in  use  among  the  Eskimos 
and  other  fishing  tribes  of  the  North  American  coasts.  The 
barbs,  it  will  further  be  seen,  are  provided  with  incisions  or 
grooves,  supposed  by  some  to  have  served  for  the  reception  of 
poison,  an  opinion  which  we  can  not  share,  knowing  that  the  ar- 
row-shafts of  many  Indian  tribes,  such  as  the  Sioux,  Blackfeet, 
and  others,  exhibit  longitudinal  grooves,  intended  to  facilitate  the 
flowing  of  the  wounded  animal's  blood.  With  a  similar  view, 
the  troglodyes  may  have  cut  grooves  in  the  barbs  of  their  weap- 
ons, if,  indeed,  these  incisions  were  not  merely  designed  for  orna- 
mentation. Some  of  the  barbed  armatures  which  are  of  small 
size  have  been  classed  as  arrow-heads.  The  sewing -needles  of 
horn  and  bone  deserve  particular  mention.  They  are  of  various 
sizes,  sharply  pointed,  and  well  polished,  and  provided  with  round 
eyes  of  such  smallness  and  regularity  that  doubts  were  at  first 
entertained  whether  they  had  been  drilled  with  stone,  until  M. 
Lartet  successfully  employed  certain  instruments  of  flint,  found 
among  the  debris,  in  perforating  horn  and  bone  with  holes  not 
larger  than  those  eyes.  M.  Lartet  also  discovered  small  pieces  of 
sandstone  bearing  straight  and  rather  deep  grooves,  and  evident- 


70  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

ly  used  for  grinding  those  needles  into  shape.  Needles  of  bone 
or  walrus  ivory,  almost  identical  with  those  under  notice,  were 
formerly  in  common  use  among  the  Eskimos,  who  made  their 
thread  from  the  tendons  of  the  wild  reindeer.  The  discovery  of 
these  needles  in  the  cave  deposits  is  in  so  far  of  interest  as  the 
fact  is  thereby  established  that  the  troglodytes  were  sufficiently 
advanced  to  practice  the  simple  art  of  sewing,  and  perhaps  that 
of  dressing  the  skins  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  garments 
which  they  had  to  wear  on  account  of  the  then  still  reigning  low 
temperature. 

Characteristic  relics  of  these  hunters  are  the  whistles  with 
which  they  gave  each  other  signals  when  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
chase.  These  curious  instruments,  which  have  been  found  at 
several  stations,  consist  of  a  bone  of  the  hind-foot  of  a  reindeer  or 
chamois,  and  are  pierced  on  one  side  with  an  oblique  hole  reach- 
ing only  as  far  as  the  cavity  of  the  bone.  Upon  blowing  into 
the  hole  a  shrill  sound  is  produced.  How  many  thousands  of 
years  may  have  elapsed  since  the  sharp  call  of  those  whistles 
rallied  the  savage  hunters  when  they  were  following  the  track  of 
the  reindeer  or  the  horse ! 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  our  cave-dwellers  were  tolerably  well 
provided  with  the  accoutrements  for  the  chase,  which  evidently 
was  their  principal  occupation.  Their  methods  of  fishing  proba- 
bly consisted  in  harpooning  and  shooting ;  but  as  the  salmon  was 
the  chief  object  of  their  fishery,  it  is  likely  that  the  practice  of 
spearing  prevailed.  At  the  time  of  the  troglodytes  the  salmon 
came  up  from  the  sea  as  far  as  the  Vezere,  where  it  is  now  no 
longer  to  be  found,  owing  to  obstructions  in  the  Dordogne  below 
the  confluence  of  the  two  rivers.  Fishing  with  nets  is  not  be- 
lieved to  have  been  in  use  among  the  ancient  people  of  this  dis- 
trict, and  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  had  boats.  The  river,  says 
Dr.  Broca,  was  then  sufficiently  narrow  to  allow  the  use  of  the 
harpoon  from  its  banks. 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  71 

The  contents  of  the  rock -dwellings,  it  must  be  understood, 
exhibit  no  uniformity  in  the  products  of  human  industry,  having 
been  inhabited  by  the  hunters  for  a  very  long  period,  during 
which  they  improved  perceptibly  in  the  mechanical  arts.  In  the 
Moustier  cave,  the  first  that  served  as  an  abode  of  man,  as  we 
have  stated,  somewhat  rude  implements  abounded,  while  articles 
of  bone  or  reindeer  horn  were  totally  wanting.  Remains  of  the 
reindeer  were  less  numerous  in  this  cave  than  those  of  the  horse 
and  the  aurochs.  The  reindeer,  consequently,  was  not  yet  as  fre- 
quent during  its  occupation  as  it  afterward  became  in  the  valley 
of  the  Vezere.  The  station  of  Laugerie  Haute  has  yielded  supe- 
rior articles  of  flint,  especially  points  of  arrows  and  spears,  while 
arrow  or  harpoon  heads  of  reindeer  horn  were  exceedingly  scarce. 
The  latter,  again,  have  abundantly  occurred  at  Laugerie  Basse,  La 
Madelaine,  and  Les  Eyzies,  supplanting,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
articles  of  flint. 


HOLLOWED  PEBBLE   OP  GRANITE  (ABOUT   ONE-THIBD   OF   NATURAL   SIZE). — LES   EYZIES. 

But  we  must  return  to  the  cave-dwellers.  There  is  evidence 
that  they  were  not  insensible  to  the  charms  of  personal  decora- 
tion. They  probably  painted  themselves,  in  the  fashion  of  still 
existing  savage  tribes,  with  red  color  which  they  scraped  off  from 
pieces  of  soft  red  hematite.  Such  pieces,  with  the  marks  of  scrap- 
ing, have  been  found  in  the  caves ;  also  pebbles  of  granite  and  oth- 
er stone,  more  or  less  hollowed  on  one  side  by  grinding,  which  may 
have  served  for  rubbing  paint.     It  has  been  suggested  that  these 


72  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

hollowed  stones  were  mortars  in  whicli  the  cave-men  bruised 
grain ;  but  they  are  almost  too  small  to  have  been  designed  for 
that  use.  It  remains  doubtful  whether  the  cave-men,  as  has  been 
suggested,  practiced  tattooing.  Some  of  their  engravings  on  rein- 
deer horn,  of  which  more  will  be  said  presently,  represent  the 
human  hand  and  fore-arm,  the  latter  being  marked  with  regular 
designs,  which  have  been  thought  to  indicate  tattooing,  though 
they  may  be  just  as  well  referable  to  a  part  of  the  dress,  or, 
what  appears  to  us  most  probable,  to  some  covering  for  guarding 
the  left  wrist  and  fore-arm  against  the  severe  rebound  of  the  bow- 
string, similar  contrivances  being  in  vogue  among  the  aboriginal 
archers  of  this  country. 


ORNAMENTS  FKOM  THE  DOKDOGNE  CAVES  (nBAKLY  HALF  SIZe). 

1,  Oval  plate  of  ivorj',  with  holes  for  suspension  (Cro-Magnon).  2.  Perforated  tooth  of  a  wolf  (La 
Madelaine).  3.  Pierced  recent  marine  shells  (Cro-Magnon).  4.  Pierced  fossil  marine  shell 
(La  Madelaine). 

The  troglodytes  employed  for  ornamental  purposes  shells, 
which  they  pierced  with  holes,  in  order  to  string  them  together. 
In  the  cave  of  Cro-Magnon  were  found  about  three  hundred 
pierced  shells  (mostly  lAttorina  littored)^  all  belonging  to  still 
existing  marine  species,  and  probably  obtained  from  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  At  other  stations  pierced  fossil  marine 
shells,  doubtless  derived  from  the  Faluns  or  shell -marls  of  Tou- 
raine,  have  occurred.  They  wore  also  small  oval  plates  of  ivoiy 
pierced  for  suspension,  and,  perhaps  as  trophies  of  the  chase  or 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  73 

as   amulets,  perforated   teeth   of  the   wolf,  urus,  ibex,  reindeer, 
horse,  and  other  animals. 

Having  given  a  brief  account  of  the  cave-men's  industrial 
acquirements,  we  will  now  proceed  to  say  something  concerning 
their  progress  in  ao^;  for,  strange  as  it  appears,  these  people 
evinced,  notwithstanding  their  otherwise  low  condition,  a  decided 
taste  for  drawing,  and  even  for  carving.  Their  delineations,  traced 
with  a  pointed  flint  on  horn,  bone,  ivory,  or  slate,  consist  occasional- 
ly in  geometrical  figures  composed  of  parallel  lines,  rows  of  dots, 
lozenges,  etc.,  but  mostly  in  outlines  of  fishes  or  of  quadrupeds, 
such  as  the  horse,  reindeer,  stag,  ibex,  aurochs,  mammoth,  and 
others.  These  animals  appear  either  single  or  in  groups,  and  oft- 
en exhibit  their  characteristic  features  in  a  degree  to  render  them 
recognizable  almost  at  the  first  glance.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
drawings  resemble  the  first  awkward  attempts  of  children  at  rep- 
resenting animals,  in  which  cases,  of  course,  it  remains  doubtful 
what  creature  the  primitive  artist  intended  to  delineate,  whether 
an  ox,  a  horse,  a  reindeer,  or  some  other  quadruped.  Such  repre- 
sentations have  chiefly  been  found  at  the  stations  of  Les  Eyzies, 
Laugerie  Basse,  and  La  Madelaine.  The  figures  of  animals  are 
often  traced  on  the  stems  or  beams  of  reindeer  antlers,  which  are 


HEPRBSENTATIONS   OF    FISHES  AND   A    HORSE    ON    A   BATON    OP    REINDEER   HORi*  (LENGTH,  ONE 

foot). — LA   MADELAINE. 

in  such  cases  carefully  worked,  and  pierced  at  the  broader  extrem- 
ity with  round  holes,  varying  in  number  from  one  to  four.  These 
remarkable  objects  can  not  have  served  as  weapons,  being  too  light 
for  such  an  application;  yet  their  frequent  occurrence  and  uni- 
formity of  type  show  that  they  possessed  a  conventional  signifi- 
cance, and  therefore  have  been  regarded  as  badges  of  authonty 


74  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

or  distinction  worn  by  the  chiefs  or  prominent  men  of  the  tribe, 
like  the  batons  which  in  our  day  indicate  the  dignity  of  a  mar- 
shal. The  number  of  holes  in  these  decorated  reindeer  horns  is 
thought  to  have  been  proportionate  to  the  position  occupied  by 
the  wearer.  Supposing  the  somewhat  hazardous  interpretation 
to  be  correct,  it  would  follow  that  the  troglodytes  already  were 
sufficiently  numerous  to  form  a  society  in  which  the  distinctions 
of  rank  were  recognized. 

We  present  a  number  of  illustrations  which  will  enable  the 
reader  to  judge  of  the  cave-men's  attainments  in  the  fine  arts. 
On  a  "  baton  "  pierced  with  two  holes  will  be  seen  representations 
of  two  fishes  and  a  horse.  The  delineations  of  the  last-named 
animal  are  very  numerous,  and  indicate  a  stout,  large-headed,  and 
short-necked  race,  similar  to  that  still  living  in  Northern  Europe. 
"  Whoever,"  says  Professor  Carl  Vogt,  "  has  seen  Icelandic  horses 
running  at  large  in  the  island  recognizes  here  instantly  their  pro- 
totype ;"  and  the  authors  of  the  "  Reliquiae  Aquitanicae  "  mention 
the  horse  as  being  so  frequently  represented  at  the  Dordogne 
stations  "  as  almost  to  lead  one  to  suppose  that  the  figure  of  this 
animal  had  been  adopted  as  a  social  or  national  emblem  by  the 
people  of  this  region."  We  further  draw  attention  to  the  figure 
of  a  squatting  (perhaps  dying)  stag,  traced  on  stag  horn,  a  materi- 
al very  rarely  found  in  the  caves,  but  in  this  instance  significant- 
ly selected  by  the  ancient  artist.  This  stag  can  be  distinguished 
from  the  reindeer  by  the  shape  of  its  antlers.  Another  piece  of 
reindeer  horn  shows  on  one  side  two  heads  of  the  aurochs,  very 
buffalo-like,  and  on  the  other  two  heads  of  horses,  and  a  man 
dragging,  as  it  appears,  a  large  eel  behind  him.  The  man's  figure 
is  rudely  drawn,  and  not  above  an  inch  in  length.  He  is  in  a 
state  of  perfect  nudity,  and  carries  a  stick  on  his  shoulder.  A 
drawing  on  reindeer  horn  from  Laugerie  Basse  (not  among  our 
illustrations)  represents  a  tolerably  well  executed  human  figure, 
likewise  nude,  and  in  the  act  of  throwing  a  dart  at  an  aurochs. 


DELINEATIONS    ON   PIECES    OF   ANTLER. — LA   MADELAINE. 


1.  Drawing  of  a  fish  on  reindeer  horn  (natural  size).  2,  Representation  of  a  squatting  stag  on 
stag  horn  (natural  size).  3.  Running  reindeer  on  reindeer  horn  (about  three-fourths  of  natural 
size).  4.  Piece  of  reindeer  horn,  showing  on  one  side  two  heads  of  the  aurochs,  and  on  the 
other  a  human  figure,  nn  eel  (?),  two  horse  heads,  and  three  rows  of  marks.  The  portions  which 
would  not  be  visible,  owing  to  the  roundness  of  the  piece  of  horn,  have  been  drawn  beyond  its 
contour  (abont  three-fourths  of  natural  size). 


THE  TROGLODYTES. 


77 


Among  the  carved  articles,  which  are  much  rarer  than  the 
drawings,  and  generally  inferior  to  the  latter,  may  be  mentioned 
a  small  dagger  of  reindeer  horn,  with  a  handle  carved  in  the 
shape  of  a  leaping  reindeer,  its  fore-legs  bent  along  the  belly,  and 
the  antlers  thrown  backward  and  resting  on  the  neck.  We  give 
the  drawing  of  a  broken  baton  of  reindeer  horn,  carved  at  its 
extremity  in  imitation  of  an  animal  in  which  we  fail  to  recognize 
a  distinct  species.  This  specimen  was  found  by  M.  Massenat  at 
Laugerie  Basse. 


FBAGMEKT    OF    A   BATON    OF    BEnTDEES    HORS    TER3IIXATnrG    IX    A5   AXIMAL's   HEAD  (SATXIBAI. 

size). — LAUGERIE   BASSE. 

But  none  of  the  representations  afford  as  much  interest  as 
those  of  the  mammoth,  of  which  several  were  discovered,  engraved 
as  well  as  carved.  The  most  remarkable  of  them,  traced  on  a 
plate  of  ivory,  was  found  among  the  debris  of  La  Madelaine,  in 
presence  of  M.  Lartet,  Dr.  Falconer,  and  M.  De  Vemeuil.  The 
drawing  in  this  specimen*  is  natural  and  bold,  and  the  peculiar- 
ities of  the  mammoth  are  faithfully  depicted.  We  see  here  the 
characteristic  frontal  formation,  the  long  curved  tusks,  the  pend- 
ent trunk,  and,  above  all,  the  long  mane  of  the  neck,  which  is  dis- 
tinctly indicated  by  many  lines.  Such  a  mane,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, still  adhered  to  the  carcass  of  a  mammoth  found  imbedded 
in  ice  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Lena,  in  Siberia,    All  doubts  must 


*  See  illustration  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter. 


78 


EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 


cease  in  view  of  sucli  tangible  evidence :  none  but  a  contemporary 
of  the  mammotli  was  able  to  trace  the  animal's  likeness  on  ivory. 
"  If  the  representation  had  been  merely  that  of  an  elephant "  says 
Sir  Charles  Lyell,  "  we  might  have  conjectured  that  some  African 
tribe  migrating  to  the  South  of  France  had  brought  with  them  a 
drawing  of  the  animal  as  it  still  survives  in  that  country.  But 
the  characteristic  wavy  lines  of  the  long  hair  of  the  mammoth  al- 
low of  no  escape  from  the  conclusion  that  the  cave-men  saw  this 
animal  in  life,  and  that  they  were  sufficiently  advanced  to  make 
a  tolerably  faithful  sketch  of  it." 


DRAWING   OF    THE   ALFINK   IBEX  ON   REINDEEB  ANTLER   (NATURAL   8IZE). — LAUGERIE   BASSE. 

This  artistic  tendency  among  a  people  that  occupied  in  other 
respects  a  very  low  position,  and  had  not  even  discovered,  as  it 
appears,  the  art  of  forming  vessels  of  clay,  presents,  indeed,  a  per- 
fect anomaly,  considering  that  man  in  Europe  at  a  much  later  pe- 
riod of  the  Stone  Age,  when  he  already  devoted  himself  to  agri- 
cultural pursuits,  produced  nothing  in  the  line  of  art  that  can  be 
compared  with  the  drawings  and  carvings  of  those  prehistoric 
people  in  the  South  of  France.  Yet,  however  praiseworthy  their 
success  in  primitive  industry  and  art  may  appear,  they  certainly 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  79 

can  not  be  commended  for  their  sense  of  cleanliness.  Like  the 
Eskimos,  whom  they  resembled  in  many  respects,  they  allowed 
the  offal  of  animals  to  accumulate  in  and  near  their  dwellings :  a 
habit  which  certainly  would  have  proved  injurious  to  their  health 
if  the  temperature  of  Middle  Europe  had  not  then  been  colder 
than  at  the  present  time.  They  chose,  moreover,  the  sunniest 
positions  for  their  habitations;  and  that  they  were  not  in  the 
habit  of  exchanging  them  for  cooler  ones  in  summer  is  proved 
by  the  occurrence  of  reindeer  horns  and  bones  belonging  to  ani- 
mals of  every  age,  which  consequently  were  brought  to  the  caves 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year.*  In  fact,  the  mere  presence  of  the 
reindeer,  musk-ox,  glutton,  chamois,  ibex,  marmot,  and  other  ani- 
mals which  now  either  inhabit  Northern  regions  or  the  cold 
heights  of  mountains,  points  to  a  rigid  climate.  In  one  word,  Eu- 
rope was  during  the  reindeer  period  still  affected  by  those  glacial 
influences  to  which  we  have  alluded  in  a  former  chapter. 

The  cave-dwellers  of  the  Vezere  were  free  from  cannibalism — 
a  praise  that  can  not  indiscriminately  be  bestowed  upon  other 
savage  European  tribes  belonging  to  that  period,  or  even  to  later 
times.  Indeed,  human  bones  split  apparently  for  the  extraction 
of  marrow,  or  roasted,  have  been  discovered  in  various  parts  of 
Europe  under  circumstances  which,  to  say  the  least,  render  it 
probable  that  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  certain  districts  in- 
dulged in  that  most  repugnant  practice.  We  merely  mention 
the  fact,  not  wishing  to  swell  these  pages  with  details  of  such  un- 
pleasant nature.  Yet,  according  to  the  statements  of  Herodotus, 
Strabo,  and  other  ancient  authors,  anthropophagy  was  still  prac- 
ticed in  Europe  during  historical  times,  and  this  loathsome  habit 
yet  survives  among  many  modern  tribes,  some  of  which  doubtless 
enjoy  a  state  of  culture  superior  to  that  attained  by  the  Euro- 

*  "  We  conclude,"  says  Dr.  Broca,  "  that  the  troglodytes  had  a  fixed 
place  of  abode;  in  other  words,  that  they  were  not  nomads."  The  same 
view  was  held  by  Lartet  and  Christy. 


80  EARLY  MAN  IN  EVEOPK 

pean  of  the  Stone  Age.  As  for  this  continent,  we  will  remind 
the  reader  of  the  comparatively  civilized  Mexicans,  among  whom 
human  sacrifices  and  cannibalism  were  prevailing  to  a  horrible 
extent  at  the  time  when  the  Spaniards  invaded  and  overthrew 
their  empire.  The  early  works  on  North  America,  too,  give 
many  instances  of  cannibalism  as  practiced  by  the  aborigines  of 
the  present  United  States ;  yet,  strange  enough,  these  facts  are 
either  not  mentioned  at  all,  or  smoothed  over  by  some  of  the 
modern  authors  treating  of  the  former  history  and  the  ethnology 
of  this  country. 

The  cave  of  Cro-Magnon,  situated  near  the  village  of  Les  Ey- 
zies,  and  discovered  in  1868  in  the  course  of  railroad  labors,  de- 
serves particular  mention,  for  here  were  found  the  remains  of  four 
adult  human  individuals  and  of  a  child,  undoubtedly  referable  to 
the  cave -people.  This  locality  has  been  carefully  explored  by 
M.  Louis  Lartet,  son  of  the  distinguished  paleontologist,  and  de- 
scribed by  him  in  the  "  Reliquiae  Aquitanicae."  The  contents  of 
the  cave  formed  various  beds,  composed  of  charcoal,  broken  and 
burned  bones,  worked  flint,  flint  cores,  and  implements  of  bone 
and  horn.  The  layers  were  separated  by  accumulations  of  lime- 
stone rubbish  and  earth.  From  the  character  and  succession  of 
the  deposits,  it  has  been  argued  that  the  cave  was  at  first  merely 
resorted  to  at  diiferent  times  by  hunters,  but  afterward  used  as 
a  habitation,  until  the  accumulated  refuse  and  debris  gradually 
raised  the  floor  so  as  to  leave  but  little  room  between  it  and  the 
roof.  The  cave  was  then  abandoned  by  the  living,  but  afterward 
used  as  a  burial-place  for  their  dead.  The  bones  of  the  latter 
constituted,  as  we  have  said,  the  remains  of  five  individuals,  but 
only  three  skulls  were  sufiiciently  preserved  for  examination. 
They  belonged  to  two  men,  one  of  them  seemingly  very  old  at 
the  time  of  his  death,  and  to  an  adult  woman  who  must  have 
died  by  violence,  the  skull  showing  in  front  a  rather  long  and 
broad  aperture,  undoubtedly  produced  by  a  heavy  blow  with  a 


TEE  TROGLODYTES.  81 

flint  weapon.  Near  the  female  skeleton  were  lying  the  remains 
of  an  infant,  probably  born  before  it  had  reached  its  full  normal 
development.  The  woman's  skull  being  partly  repaired  at  the 
place  of  the  fracture,  physicians  are  of  opinion  that  she  survived 
some  time  the  infliction  of  the  wound,  and  prematurely  gave 
birth  to  the  child  while  in  that  condition.  Are  not  these  cir- 
cumstances suggestive  of  a  tragedy  that  was  enacted,  with  all  its 
ingredients  of  jealousy  and  revenge,  ages  ago  among  the  cave- 
dwellers  of  the  Dordogne?  The  fractured  female  skull  is  not 
the  only  token  of  a  rude  mode  of  life  observable  on  the  human 
remains  of  Cro-Magnon,  one  of  the  thigh-bones  of  the  old  man  be- 
ing marked  with  a  hollow,  evidently  the  result  of  an  old  wound 
which  he  may  have  received  in  the  chase  or  in  war. 

Dr.  Paul  Broca,  of  Paris,  an  authority  of  the  highest  order, 
has  minutely  examined  these  human  remains,  and  established  the 
physical  characteristics  of  the  cave -people  as  far  as  the  rather 
scanty  material  permitted.  The  troglodytes  of  the  Vezere  were 
a  tall  race,  surpassing  in  height  the  average  Frenchmen  of  our 
time.  The  old  man  measured  nearly  six  feet,  and  the  woman 
was  tall  in  proportion.  These  people  possessed  heavy  frames 
and  strong  muscles,  which  have  left  their  traces  in  the  hollows 
and  ridges  of  the  bones.  Their  elongated  skulls,  though  exhibit- 
ing some  features  characteristic  of  men  who  lead  the  life  of  sav- 
ages, were  well  formed  and  large,  exceeding  in  capacity  the  mean 
of  those  of  existing  European  nations.  The  cave-men  had  broad 
faces,  and,  to  judge  from  the  development  of  the  maxillary  bones, 
they  must  have  been  endowed  with  extraordinary  powers  of  mas- 
tication. Their  tihioB,  or  shin-bones,  instead  of  being  triangular 
in  the  section,  like  those  of  the  present  Europeans,  are  flattened, 
thus  approaching  the  formation  of  the  same  bones  in  the  gorilla. 
The  like  feature,  the  reader  will  remember,  was  noticed  in  the 
first  human  skeleton  discovered  by  M.  Riviere  in  one  of  the  caves 
of  Mentone,  and  this  peculiarity  may  ultimately  be  found  to  be 

6 


82  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

characteristic  of  the  primeval  European  in  general  *  Although 
the  men  of  the  Vez^re  Valley  were  a  tall  race,  it  must  not  be  in- 
ferred that  all  Europeans  of  that  period  showed  a  similar  phys- 
ical development ;  on  the  contrary,  the  human  remains  found,  for 
instance,  in  Belgian  caves — we  allude  to  later  discoveries  than 
those  of  Schmerling — indicate  a  people  below  the  middle  size, 
Europe  probably  being  already  in  those  remote  times  inhabited 
by  various  though  scanty  populations,  differing  from  each  other 
in  stature  as  well  as  in  other  physical  qualities.  The  troglodytes 
of  the  Yezere,  it  seems,  represented  a  superior  type  of  their  time. 
"  If  they  were  in  a  savage  state,"  says  Broca,  "  it  was  because  the 
surrounding  conditions  were  unfavorable  to  their  development. 
The  conformation  of  their  skulls  shows  that  they  were  capable 
of  culture,  and,  under  favorable  auspices,  would  have  made  great 
and  rapid  advances  in  civilization." 

Near  the  human  remains  in  the  Cro-Magnon  cave  lay  about 
three  hundred  marine  shells,  of  which  mention  was  made,  a  few 
oval  plates  of  ivory,  perforated  for  suspension,  several  drilled 
teeth  of  animals,  worked  antlers  of  the  reindeer,  chipped  flints, 
and  a  large  block  of  gneiss,  split  and  presenting  a  smooth  surface. 
Among  the  animal  remains  of  the  cave  may  be  mentioned  those 
of  a  huge  bear,  of  the  mammoth  (stump  of  a  tusk  only),  cave-lion, 
wolf,  fox,  hare,  spermophile  or  pouched  marmot,  wild  boar,  rein- 
deer, aurochs,  and  horse,  the  last-named  animal  being  more  nu- 
merous than  either  the  reindeer  or  the  aurochs.  The  cave  of 
Cro-Magnon  thus  appears  to  have  been  resorted  to  at  an  earlier 
period  than  other  stations  of  the  Vezere  Valley  where  the  rein- 
deer predominates. 

We  must  now  dismiss  the  troglodytes  who  once  dwelt  in  the 
valley  of  the  V6z^re;  but  before  doing  so  we  will  review  their 

*  The  late  Professor  Jeffries  Wyman,  of  Cambridge,  first  noticed  the  same 
formation  of  the  tibice  in  skeletons  exhumed  from  mounds  in  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, Michigan,  and  Florida. 


THE  TROGLODYTES. 


88 


condition  of  existence  in  a  few  words,  in  order  to  stow  in  what 
respects  they  differed  from  later  and  more  advanced  men  of  the 
European  Stone  Age,  of  whom  we  shall  speak  in  succeeding 
chapters. 

They  subsisted  by  fishing  and  hunting,  adding,  as  may  be  as- 
sumed, to  their  animal  food  such  fruits  as  were  spontaneously  of- 
fered by  nature.  They  had  made  no  steps  toward  an  agricultur- 
al state,  and  domesticated  animals  probably  were  entirely  want- 
ing. As  dwellings  they  used  caves,  overhanging  rocks,  and 
doubtless  rude  huts  constructed  of  boughs,  skins,  or  other  mate- 
rials. Their  tools  and  weapons  were  made,  sometimes  very  skill- 
fully, of  stone,  horn,  and  bone.  They  employed  only  chipped 
stone  implements,  and  were,  as  it  appears,  unacquainted  with  the 
art  of  making  vessels  of  clay.  Their  dress  consisted  of  skins 
sewed  together  with  sinews.  An  artistic  tendency  which  mani- 
fested itself  in  primitive  attempts  at  drawing  and  carving  must 
be  regarded  as  a  feature  distinguishing  them  from  the  popula- 
tions of  the  later  Stone  Age. 


HBAJ>    OF   THJS   ANTILOPE   SAIGA    ENGRAVED    ON    BONE    (NATURAL    SIZe). — FROM   THE    GBOTTO    OP 
GOURDAN,  NEAR   MONTREJEAU,  HAUTE-GARONNB. 


ENTKANCE   TO   THE   HOHLEFELS   CAVE,  WUIiTiiiliiKliG, 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  TROGLODYTES— Continued. 

The  stations  of  the  reindeer  period  in  France  are  not  confined 
to  the  valley  of  the  Vez^re,  many  others  having  been  discovered 
in  different  parts  of  that  country ;  but  as  we  can  not  attempt  any 
thing  like  completeness  in  these  pages,  we  have  selected  as  the 
subject  of  the  preceding  chapter  that  group  which  is  considered 
the  most  interesting  on  account  of  the  important  facts  resulting 
from  its  exploration.  A  few  words,  however,  must  be  devoted 
to  the  cave  of  Bruniquel,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
Aveyron,  in  the  Department  of  the  Tarn-et-Garonne,  and  not  far 
from  Montauban.  This  cave,  explored  by  its  owner,  the  Vicomte 
de  Lastic,  proved  exceedingly  rich  in  animal  remains  and  manu- 
factured objects,  which  lay  beneath  a  crust  of  stalagmite.  Flint 
flakes,  nuclei,  and  implements  abounded,  and  about  a  hundred 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  §5 

barbed  harpoon -beads  of  horn  were  found,  many  of  them  orna- 
mented with  designs  of  animals.  There  occurred  also  bone  nee- 
dles and  pins,  and  portions  of  implements  made  of  the  tusks  of 
the  mammoth.  Pottery  was  totally  wanting  in  this  cave,  as  it 
was  in  those  which  have  thus  far  been  described.  The  people 
who  lived  in  Southern  France  during  the  reindeer  period  appar- 
ently yet  lacked  the  knowledge  of  forming  vessels  of  clay.  Ke- 
mains  of  the  reindeer  were  very  numerous,  representing,  accord- 
ing to  Professor  Owen,  more  than  a  thousand  individuals,  while 
those  of  the  horse  amounted  to  a  hundred.  The  fauna  comprised, 
generally  speaking,  thirteen  species  of  quadrupeds,  six  of  them 
extinct;  four  of  birds  (sea -eagle,  falcon,  raven,  partridge);  one 
species  of  fish  (salmon);  and  sixteen  species  of  Atlantic  and 
Mediterranean  shells.  The  presence  of  the  marine  shells  indi- 
cates that  the  troglodytes  of  Bruniquel  sometimes  visited  both 
sea-boards,  from  which  they  were  not  very  far  distant,  bringing 
home  the  shells  they  had  gathered  there.  Lastly,  there  must  be 
mentioned  among  the  remains  obtained  from  this  station  a  num- 
ber of  fragments  of  human  skulls  and  other  bones,  which  were 
found  below  the  stalag-mite  of  the  cave. 

Finally,  before  leaving  the  soil  of  France,  we  must  give  a 
short  account  of  the  celebrated  station  near  the  village  of  Solutre, 
in  the  Department  of  the  Saone-et-Loire.  This  remarkable  abode 
of  prehistoric  man,  which  has  been  described  by  Messrs.  De  Ferry 
and  Arcelin,  is  not  a  cave,  but  an  uncultivated  area  of  rising 
ground,  which  may  with  some  propriety  be  called  an  ossuary,  on 
account  of  the  amazing  quantity  of  bones  here  exhumed,  among 
which  those  of  the  horse  are  most  numerous,  constituting  the 
skeletons  of  at  least  two  thousand  individuals.  Less  frequent, 
but  still  quite  abundant,  are  remains  of  the  reindeer,  bespeaking 
several  hundred  animals  of  this  species.  Their  antlers  often  ap- 
pear in  such  an  excellent  state  of  preservation  that  they  emit, 
when  worked,  the  peculiar  odor  of  fresh  horn.     There  have  fur- 


86  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

ther  been  found  remains  of  an  elephant  (probably  the  mam- 
moth), the  aurochs,  stag,  and  great  lion.  The  ancient  people  who 
once  occupied  this  place  buried  their  dead  in  the  ground,  but, 
curiously  enough,  amidst  the  refuse  of  meals,  on  hearths  covered 
with  the  still  glowing  ashes.  Thus,  at  least,  the  mode  of  burial  is 
described  by  the  explorers,  who  disinterred  more  than  jSfty  skel- 
etons, mostly  belonging  to  aged  persons  and  children.  The  hut 
in  which  the  deceased  used  to  dwell,  they  think,  was  destroyed, 
and  served  as  his  tomb.  Some  of  the  graves  are  composed  of 
rough  stone  slabs,  so  placed  as  to  form  parallelograms.  Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Pruner-Bey,  the  skulls  obtained  from  the  ancient  cem- 
etery of  Solutre  exhibit,  on  the  whole,  a  type  approaching  the 
cranial  formation  of  modern  Laplanders  and  Finns.  Well-made 
flint  implements,  said  to  resemble  those  of  Laugerie  Haute,  in  the 
Dordogne  district,  have  been  found  in  abundance;  also  worked 
bones,  some  fragments  of  pottery,  and  a  headless  stone  figure  of 
an  animal  with  parted  hoofs.  To  the  north  of  this  remarkable  os- 
suary rises  a  steep  rock,  accessible  only  from  one  side.  M.  Ar- 
celin  conjectures  that  the  ancient  hunters  availed  themselves  of 
the  peculiar  formation  of  this  rock  for  capturing  the  wild  horses 
whose  bones  are  so  plentifully  scattered  through  the  ground  at 
its  base.  They  managed,  he  thinks,  to  drive  the  steeds  up  to  the 
summit  of  the  rock,  forcing  them  to  rush  over  the  precipice. 
Other  hunters,  lying  in  wait  at  the  foot  of  the  rock,  had  but  little 
difficulty  in  dispatching  the  injured  animals.  This  horse-chasing 
at  Solutre  has  been  depicted  in  illustrated  French  works,  and  un- 
doubtedly presents  a  wild  and  drastic  scene ;  but  who  can  decide 
whether  the  creation  of  the  artist  has  any  foundation  in  reality  ? 
There  is  certainly  something  anomalous  about  the  station  of  So- 
lutr^,  and  its  exploration  has  given  rise  to  animated  discussions, 
and  even  to  some  literary  skirmishes,  among  French  savants.  It 
is  possible  that  the  locality  was  resorted  to  at  different  times  by 
tribes  whose  relics  became  commingled.     This,  of  course,  is  mere- 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  87 

ly  a  suggestion  which  we  throw  out,  and  not  a  definite  opinion. 
Future  investigations  may  serve  to  clear  up  the  doubtful  points. 

The  reindeer  was  not  wanting  in  Germany  during  the  period 
under  consideration.  As  far  as  known,  the  range  of  this  animal 
in  Europe  extended  from  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia  to  the 
foot  of  the  Pyrenees;  how  far  it  wandered  in  a  more  southern 
direction  has  not  yet  fully  been  ascertained.  Reindeer  remains, 
especially  antlers,  have  often  occurred  in  Mecklenburg,  where 
they  were  found  in  peat  bogs,  during  the  draining  of  ponds  and 
the  construction  of  high-roads,  and  in  the  course  of  labors  of  simi- 
lar nature.  But  these  discoveries  merely  proved  that  the  animal 
lived  at  one  time  in  the  North  of  Germany,  and  had  no  reference 
to  its  CO -existence  with  man.*  Of  late  years,  however,  several 
stations,  analogous  to  those  of  France,  have  been  discovered  in 
Wiirtemberg,  and  to  Dr.  Oscar  Fraas,  of  Stuttgart,  belongs  the 
merit  of  having  explored  and  described  these  ancient  resorts  of 
man. 

The  station  at  Schussenried,  near  Ravensburg,  in  the  above- 
named  kingdom,  is  of  great  interest  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
character,  and  therefore  deserves  a  short  notice  in  this  chapter. 
In  the  year  1865,  the  owner  of  a  mill  in  that  neighborhood 
caused  the  digging  of  a  long  and  deep  trench,  in  order  to  supply 
his  mill-race  with  water,  having  been  deprived  of  that  necessary 
element  by  the  draining  of  a  neighboring  pond.  The  fosse  cut 
through  a  mass  of  gravel,  evidently  brought  there  by  glacial 
action,  and  forming  at  this  place  a  depression  or  hollow,  which 
contained  a  deposit  of  relics,  presently  to  be  described.     This  de- 

*  Caesar's  remarks  concerning  a  one-horned  animal  living,  as  he  says,  in 
Germany  have  been  thought  to  refer  to  the  reindeer.  His  description,  it  is 
true,  answers  in  some  respects ;  yet  it  is  not  quite  certain,  after  all,  whether 
he  really  alludes  to  that  animal.  It  is  strange,  at  any  rate,  that  no  remains 
of  the  reindeer  have  been  found  in  the  oldest  lacustrine  pile-works  of  Switz- 
erland, which  certainly  belong  to  a  much  earlier  time  than  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era. 


88  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

posit,  it  must  be  understood,  occurred,  as  far  as  we  can  judge  from 
the  profile  drawing  before  us,  about  twelve  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  being  covered  by  a  layer  of  calcareous  tufa  from  four 
to  five  feet  thick,  upon  which  rested  a  bed  of  peat  of  still  greater 
thickness.  The  hollow  containing  the  relics,  of  course,  was  open 
at  the  time  when  men  left  there  the  traces  of  their  presence, 
which  were  gradually  buried  by  the  deposits  of  carbonate  of  lime 
and  vegetable  matter  just  mentioned,  to  come  to  light  again,  ages 
afterward,  almost  in  the  shape  of  a  geological  formation.  The 
relic  bed  consisted  of  broken  bones  of  animals,  charcoal,  ashes, 
blackened  hearth  -  stones,  flint  implements,  and  various  manufact- 
ures of  reindeer  horn,  the  whole  enveloped  by  fine  sand,  and, 
strange  to  say,  by  moss  of  a  dark -brown  color,  and,  owing  to 
its  constant  contact  with  percolating  water,  in  such  an  excellent 
state  of  preservation  that  Professor  Schimper,  of  Strassburg,  an 
authority  on  mosses,  had  no  difficulty  in  recognizing  the  different 
species.  None  of  them  flourish  any  longer  in  the  plains  of  Ger- 
many, but  they  are  still  found  in  Alpine  regions  near  or  above 
the  snow-line,  and  in  Norway,  Lapland,  Spitzbergen,  Labrador, 
and  Greenland.  "There  can  be  no  doubt,"  says  Fraas,  "that 
mosses  are  much  surer  tests  in  determining  the  character  of  a  cli- 
mate than  the  movable  animal  world,  which  is  not  fettered  to  the 
soil.  Mosses  are  much  more  affected  by  changes  in  the  temper- 
ature, by  humidity,  and  other  atmospheric  agents,  than  quadru- 
peds, and  the  value  of  these  vegetable  remains  in  their  bearing 
on  the  antiquity  of  the  deposit  should  not  be  undervalued." 

The  locality  was,  to  all  appearance,  a  camping- place  where 
the  ancient  inhabitants  cooked  their  meals  and  manufactured  im- 
plements, and  not  merely  a  place  set  apart,  as  Dr.  Fraas  seems  to 
think,  to  receive  all  sorts  of  refuse.  Primitive  man  made  no  such 
nice  distinctions,  but  left  things  where  he  dropped  them.  The 
presence  of  ashes,  charcoal,  and  hearth-stones  blackened  by  fire  in- 
dicates that  the  spot  was  inhabited,  periodically  at  least,  by  the 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  89 

ancient  Suabian  huntsmen.  Perfectly  in  keeping  with  the  North- 
ern character  of  the  moss  was  the  fauna  of  Schussenried.  The 
reindeer  evidently  formed  the  chief  object  of  the  chase,  being 
represented  by  several  hundred  individuals  at  this  station.  We 
further  have  to  mention  the  glutton,  and  two  species  of  fox  no 
longer  to  be  found  in  Germany,  but  confined  to  high  latitudes. 
The  presence  of  a  small  kind  of  ox,  of  a  large-headed  horse,  the 
brown  bear,  wolf,  and  hare,  would  furnish  no  additional  evidence 
of  a  severe  climate ;  while  the  wild  swan,  which  was  a  favorite 
game  of  the  Schussenried  hunters,  points  again  to  such  a  state  of 
temperature.  This  swan,  which  now  visits  Wiirtemberg  merely 
as  a  bird  of  passage,  and  falls  so  rarely  a  victim  to  the  sportsman 
that  the  killing  of  one  is  reported  in  the  newspapers,  seems  to 
have  been  an  inhabitant  of  that  region  during  the  period  under 
notice.  All  these  animals  were  eaten  by  the  ancient  people,  who 
likewise  broke  the  skulls  and  bones  to  secure  their  contents. 
This  was  done  by  means  of  round  pebbles  about  the  size  of  a  fist, 
and  bearing  the  marks  of  their  use,  which  are  also  visible  on  the 
bones.  Such  primitive  hammers  occurred  in  great  abundance. 
No  remains  of  the  dog  were  found,  nor  bones  showing  the  traces 
of  having  been  gnawed  by  that  animal :  these  men  probably  pos- 
sessed no  domesticated  animals  of  any  kind.  Not  a  single  frag- 
ment of  pottery  occurred  among  the  rubbish,  and  hence  it  may 
be  inferred  that  the  reindeer  hunters  were  yet  unacquainted  with 
the  fabrication  of  earthenware.  Like  the  troglodytes  of  the  Dor- 
dogne,  they  made  an  extensive  use  of  the  antlers  of  the  reindeer, 
fashioning  them  into  weapons  and  tools  which,  being  more  or  less 
similar  to  those  already  described,  need  not  be  specialized  in  this 
place.  Even  the  pierced  baton-like  articles  were  present,  though 
not  embellished  with  designs  of  animals,  like  those  of  the  cave- 
men of  the  Vez^re.  As  for  the  numerous  articles  of  flint  found 
at  the  Schussenried  station  we  can  not  make  any  statements,  no 
drawings  or  precise  descriptions  of  these  objects  being  given  in 


90  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

the  account  of  Dr.  Fraas,  from  which  our  data  are  extracted. 
None  of  them,  however,  were  polished. 

Dr.  Fraas  has  explored  several  Suabian  caves  in  which  re- 
mains of  extinct  animals  and  of  the  reindeer  occurred  associated 
with  objects  wrought  by  man.  We  will  give  some  account  of 
the  remarkable  cave  in  the  Hohlefels,  or  "  hollow  rock,"  in  the 


IMPLEMENT  MADE    OF   THE   JAW   OF   A   CA\  L  i.l.Ali   (nEAKLY   HALF   8IZe). — HOHLEFELS   CAVE. 

romantic  valley  of  the  small  river  Ach,  near  Blaubeuren.  This 
station  is  not  a  rock-shelter  or  grotto,  but  a  real  cave,  about  a 
hundred  feet  high,  and,  including  some  lateral  galleries,  nearly 
of  the  same  length  and  width.  The  entrance,  situated  ten  feet 
above  the  brook,  is  eighty  feet  long,  and  sufficiently  high  to  ren- 
der access  easy.  The  natural  adit  being  somewhat  crooked,  no 
light  penetrates  into  the  cave,  which  therefore  served  as  the  ref- 
uge of  a  multitude  of  bats.  These  nocturnal  creatures  hung  in 
clusters  from  the  vaulted  roof,  and  their  whispering  was  the  only 
sound  heard  in  this  lonely  place.  Years  ago  the  cave  had  been 
visited  at  times  by  an  old  itinerant  dealer  in  petrifacts,  who 
hunted  there  for  fossil  bears'  teeth,  many  of  which  are  still  pre- 
served in  the  collections  of  Wurtemberg.  He  marked  his  speci- 
mens as  being  derived  from  a  cave  near  Blaubeuren,  yet  he  never 
told  the  purchasers  in  what  cave  he  had  found  them,  and  died 
without  revealing  his  secret.     Long  afterward  the  Hohlefels  cave 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  91 

was  identified  as  the  locality  where  the  old  man  had  obtained 
the  fossil  teeth.  Though  the  floor  and  walls  of  the  cave  are  al- 
ways wet,  there  is  no  trickling  water  that  could  cause  the  fonna- 
tion  of  stalactite  properly  so  called,  thin  layers  of  friable  matter 
being  the  only  calcareous  deposits  at  this  place. 

When  Dr.  Fraas  commenced  his  operations  in  the  fall  of 
1870,  he  imagined  that  he  was  examining  one  of  those  ancient 
dens  of  bears  so  frequent  in  Germany,  and  flattered  himself  with 
the  hope  of  soon  finding  the  skulls  of  bears  and  their  complete 
extremities.  Though  he  exhumed  at  the  outset  bones  of  the 
reindeer  and  rhinoceros,  he  still  clung  to  his  first  view,  supposing 
these  remains  had  been  dragged  into  the  cave  by  bears.  Shortly 
afterward,  however,  he  came,  to  his  surprise,  upon  objects  unmis- 
takably fashioned  by  man,  such  as  pierced  horse  -  teeth,  worked 
reindeer  horn,  small  pieces  of  pottery,  and  flint  flakes ;  and  it  now 
became  evident  that  this  cave  was  not  merely  a  den  of  bears, 
but  a  primitive  human  habitation  belonging  to  a  period  of  re- 
motest antiquity.  This  circumstance  heightened  the  importance 
of  the  exploration,  which  was  now  carried  on  with  the  greatest 
minuteness.  After  having  removed  a  superficial  layer  of  black 
mold  intermingled  with  charcoal.  Dr.  Fraas  reached  a  bed  of 
wet  yellow  loam  or  clay,  in  which  he  caused  a  long  and  broad 
trench  to  be  dug.  This  loam,  which  formed  the  "  archaeological 
stratum,"  that  is,  the  matrix  containing  relics,  was  examined  to  a 
depth  of  twelve  or  thirteen  feet,  beyond  which  it  still  reached 
farther  downward,  though  yielding  no  longer  remains  in  suflScient 
number  to  warrant  further  digging. 

The  principal  game  of  those  Suabian  hunters  evidently  was 
the  bear,  which  furnished  not  only  meat  and  marrow,  but  also  in 
his  dense  fur  the  clothing  that  enabled  his  human  destroyers  to 
withstand  the  rigor  of  a  low  temperature.  The  remains  of  sever- 
al species  of  bears  were  found  in  this  cave,  but  those  of  the  cave- 
bear  (Ursics  spelcms)  occurred  in  greatest  abundance.     Their 


92  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

skulls  had  been  broken  for  removing  the  brain,  and  hence  Dr. 
Fraas  was  unable  to  obtain  a  single  entire  bear's  skull  in  this 
cave.  The  Suabian  troglodytes  made  a  curious  use  of  the  lower 
jaws  of  these  animals.  They  broke  or  cut  them  in  two  halves, 
and  further  modified  them  by  the  removal  of  some  portions,  thus 
producing  implements  which  doubtless  were  employed  like  hatch- 
ets in  skinning  and  dismembering  the  killed  animals.  Many  of 
the  bones  found  in  the  Hohlefels  cave  show  the  deep  impressions 
left  by  the  sharp  corner  teeth  of  these  transformed  bears'  jaws. 
The  occurrence  of  a  single  jaw  thus  prepared  would  furnish  no 
evidence  of  such  a  use;  but  as  many  specimens  trimmed  in  the 
same  way  have  been  found  at  this  place,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  their  application  as  implements  or  as  weapons,  even  if  there 
were  no  corroboration  in  the  fact  that  corresponding  tools  have 


REINDEBR   SKULL  TRANSFORMED  INTO  A  VESSEL  (NEARLY  HALF   SlZIi). — HOHLEFELS   CAVE. 

occurred  in  French  caves  and  elsewhere.  Primitive  man,  restrict- 
ed as  he  was  in  his  resources,  necessarily  hit,  independently  of 
place,  upon  the  same  expedients  to  satisfy  his  simple  wants. 

The  reindeer  was  represented  in  this  cave  by  about  sixty  in- 
dividuals, mostly  young  animals.  The  men  of  the  Hohlefels  made 
its  compact  horns  into  points,  apparently  arrow-heads,  and  into 
piercing  tools,  serving  as  needles  in  the  manufacture  of  skin  gar- 
ments.    These  representatives  of  needles  are  not  provided  with 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  93 

eyes  like  the  well-formed  articles  of  the  same  class  in  the  caves 
of  the  Vez^re,  but  simply  consist  of  pointed  rods  scraped  into 
shape  with  a  sharp-edged  flint.  Reindeer  skulls  were  sometimes 
converted  by  these  cave-men  into  dippers  or  drinking -cups,  the 
manufacture  of  which  required  but  a  series  of  blows  with  the 
hatchet  of  bear's  jaw,  by  which  the  superfluous  portions  were 
removed.  Yet,  notwithstanding  this  rude  labor,  the  primitive 
vessels  produced  by  it  are  not  badly  made,  showing  that  a  certain 
sense  of  neatness  is  inherent  in  man,  and  manifests  itself  even  in 
a  very  low  stage  of  his  existence. 

Next  in  frequency  to  the  reindeer  was  the  wild  horse,  a  small 
race,  with  a  large  head  and  slender  limbs, 
not  unlike  the  pony  of  our  days.  The 
troglodytes  used  to  pierce  the  incisors  of 
this  animal  at  the  root,  not  by  a  regular 
drilling  process,  but  in  some  other  rough 
way,  as  shown  in  the  annexed  drawing. 
Drilled  teeth  of  wild  animals,  it  is  well 
known,  are  often  worn  as  trophies  of  the  cavk  (half  size). 

chase  by  savage  hunters,  and  in  such  cases  i.  Pierced  tooth  of  a  horse,   2. 

.     T       ,  •  n  11  1  Pierced  jaw  of  a  wild  cat. 

are  indicative  or  personal  valor  and  suc- 
cess. In  accordance  with  this  principle,  it  would  have  been  more 
becoming  if  the  hunters  of  the  Hohlefels  cave,  instead  of  wearing 
the  teeth  of  the  comparatively  timid  horse,  had  decorated  them- 
selves with  those  of  the  great  bear  or  the  lion  as  tokens  of  their 
victories  over  these  dangerous  beasts.  Yet  no  pierced  teeth  of 
such  animals  have  been  discovered  in  the  cave,  those  of  the  horse 
being  exclusively  treated  in  this  manner.  Dr.  Fraas  therefore 
regards,  with  justness,  as  we  think,  the  pierced  horse -teeth  as 
amulets,  which  were  worn  from  some  superstitious  motive ;  and 
he  draws  attention  to  the  peculiar  esteem  in  which,  according  to 
Tacitus,  horses  were  held  among  the  ancient  Germans.  "The 
well-known  superstition,"  says  this  valued  author,  "  which  in  oth- 


AMULETS  FROM  THE  HOHLEFELS 


94  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

er  countries  consults  the  flight  and  notes  of  birds,  is  also  estab- 
lished in  Germany;  but  to  receive  intimation  of  future  events 
from  horses  is  the  peculiar  credulity  of  the  country.  For  this 
purpose  a  number  of  milk-white  steeds,  unprofaned  by  mortal  la- 
bor, are  constantly  maintained  at  the  public  expense,  and  placed 
to  pasture  in  the  religious  groves.  When  occasion  requires,  they 
are  harnessed  to  a  sacred  chariot,  and  the  priest,  accompanied  by 
the  king  or  chief  of  the  state,  attends  to  watch  the  motions  and 
the  neighing  of  the  horses.  No  other  mode  of  augury  is  received 
with  such  implicit  faith  by  the  people,  the  nobility,  and  the 
priesthood.  The  horses  upon  these  solemn  occasions  are  sup- 
posed to  be  the  organs  of  the  gods,  and  the  priests  their  favored 
interpreters."  Dr.  Fraas  also  refers  to  the  custom  still  prevailing 
among  the  German  peasantry  of  nailing  horseshoes  to  the  doors 
of  stables  and  barns  as  a  protection  against  witchcraft.*  The 
reader  will  remember  what  Lartet  and  Christy  say  concerning 
the  frequency  of  delineations  of  the  horse  in  the  stations  of  the 
Dordogne,  and  the  importance  attached  to  that  animal  by  the 
ancient  hunters  of  the  Aquitanian  district. 

To  judge  from  the  number  of  remains  of  the  bear,  reindeer, 
and  horse,  these  animals  were  chiefly  hunted  by  the  troglodytes, 
bones  of  other  quadrupeds  being  far  less  frequent  in  the  Hohle- 
fels  cave,  as,  for  instance,  those  of  the  urus  and  another  bovine 
species  of  small  size,  perhaps  the  musk-ox,  and  of  the  mammoth, 
rhinoceros,  wolf,  fox,  antelope,  otter,  and  a  kind  of  hog  not  yet 
identified.  The  cave-lion  was  represented  by  a  much -injured 
lower  jaw  and  a  few  other  bones,  which  indicated  an  animal 
greatly  superior  in  size  to  a  full-grown  African  lion.  "  How  this 
terrible  cat  succumbed  to  man,"  says  Fraas,  "  is  certainly  a  mys- 
tery."    The  other  felines  of  this  cave  were  the  lynx  and  the  wild 

*  It  would  be  hazardous,  however,  to  infer  from  these  superstitions  that 
there  existed  any  consanguinity  between  the  Germans  described  by  Tacitus 
and  the  ti'oglodytes  of  Suabia. 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  95 

cat.  The  first-named  carnivore  became  extinct  in  Wiii'temberg 
not  many  years  ago,  the  last  one  having  been  killed  in  1846. 
The  wild  cat  still  survives  in  that  kingdom.  It  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark that  a  number  of  lower  jaws  of  the  wild  cat  found  in  the 
Hohlefels  and  other  Suabian  caves  were  pierced  for  suspension  at 
the  broader  extremity,  a  circumstance  illustrative,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  pierced  horse-teeth,  of  some  strange  belief  among  the  trog- 
lodytes. Remains  of  the  hare  are  exceedingly  scarce.  Was  this 
animal,  owing  to  a  superstitious  prejudice,  rejected  as  food  by  the 
ancient  Suabian  hunters,  as  it  is  even  now  by  the  Laplanders  and 
other  Northern  populations,  who  are  generally  not  very  choice  in 
the  means  of  satisfying  their  hunger?  We  shall  have  occasion 
to  refer  again  to  this  apparent  repugnance  to  the  hare  among  the 
primitive  populations  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  Mosaic  law, 
it  is  well  known,  pronounced  the  hare  unclean,  and  the  ancient 
Britons,  according  to  Caesar,  abstained  from  eating  its  flesh.  We 
draw  particular  attention  to  the  absence  of  remains  of  the  dog 
and  of  any  other  domestic  animal  in  the  deposit  of  the  cave.  The 
number  of  bones  of  wild  swans,  geese,  and  ducks  indicates  that 
these  birds  were  much  hunted  by  the  cave-men,  who,  it  seems,  did 
not  disdain  even  the  smaller  species  of  the  feathered  tribe.  There 
occurred  in  the  cave  some  human  bones  bearing  the  unmistaka- 
ble traces  of  having  been  gnawed  by  wild  beasts,  doubtless  by 
bears.  "  Such  distinct  evidence  of  the  work  of  the  carnivores," 
says  Dr.  Fraas,  "  would  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  there  were 
times  when  the  bear  was  the  sole  master  of  this  retreat,  into 
which  he  dragged  his  victims — men,  horses,  oxen — in  order  to 
tear  them  or  to  gnaw  their  bones."  Man,  it  may  be  assumed, 
often  became  the  prey  of  those  terrible  beasts,  among  which  he 
had  to  carry  on  his  struggle  for  existence. 

Allusion  having  been  made  to  the  implements  of  reindeer 
horn  which  were  found  associated  with  the  animal  remains  in 
this  cave,  little  more  need  be  said  about  them.     The  drawings 


96  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUBOPK 

given  by  Dr.  Fraas  represent,  with  the  exception  of  handle-shaped 
blunt  articles,  probably  used  in  skinning  animals,  and  of  piercers, 
hardly  any  well-defined  tools  or  weapons;  and  unless  we  adopt 
the  view  that  the  troglodytes  possessed  better  implements,  which 
they  took  care  not  to  mingle  with  the  rubbish,  they  must  be  con- 
sidered as  rather  deficient  in  mechanical  skill,  and  far  inferior  in 
that  respect  to  the  reindeer  hunters  of  the  Dordogne.  The  stone 
articles  found  in  the  cave  are  mere  flakes  split  from  blocks  of 
Jurassic  flint  occurring  in  the  neighborhood,  and  in  no  way  al- 
tered or  brought  to  a  definite  shape  by  the  process  of  chipping. 
They  were  evidently  the  simple  tools  employed  for  fashioning 
the  articles  of  horn  and  bone.  Though  heavier  stone  implements 
have  not  been  met  in  the  cave,  it  is  obvious  that  its  ancient  in- 
habitants could  not  have  dispensed  with  them,  and  their  absence 
may  be  merely  accidental.  Indeed,  Dr.  Fraas  mentions  among 
the  discovered  objects  a  reindeer  skull  from  which  the  antlers 
had  been  detached  by  means  of  a  sharp  heavy  stone,  probably  a 
hatchet,  the  strokes  of  which  are  plainly  visible.  It  appears 
somewhat  strange  that  these  exceedingly  primitive  people  were 
acquainted  with  the  manufacture  of  pottery — a  fact  proved  by 
small  fragments  of  vessels  which  Dr.  Fraas  found  commingled 
with  the  animal  remains  and  objects  shaped  by  the  hand  of  man. 
According  to  his  express  statement,  the  digging  operations  were 
carried  on  in  a  part  of  the  cave  that  never  had  been  disturbed, 
and  the  small  pieces  of  earthenware,  consequently,  must  be  con- 
sidered as  coeval  with  the  other  relics.  The  sherds  themselves, 
consisting  of  hardened  clay  mixed  with  sand,  were  too  small  for 
allowing  any  conjecture  as  to  the  form  of  the  vessels  when  in  a 
perfect  state.* 

*  It  is  no  easy  matter,  indeed,  to  assign  to  this  human  habitation  a  place 
in  the  relative  chronology  of  prehistoric  times.  The  prevalence  of  the  great 
bear  over  the  reindeer,  together  with  the  exceedingly  primitive  character  of 
the  manufactures  of  bone,  horn,  and  flint,  points  to  a  period  anterior  to  the 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  ^f 

Recent  explorations  in  Poland  have  shown  that  the  primitive 
inhabitants  of  that  country  were  rude  hunters  and  troglodytes 
like  the  tribes  occupying,  as  we  have  seen,  the  more  western  dis- 
tricts of  Europe.  Not  long  ago,  a  cavern  situated  in  a  valley 
three  leagues  distant  from  Cracow  was  examined  by  Count  Za- 
wisza,  who  discovered  there  numerous  remains  of  animals,  partly 
belonging  to  extinct  species,  and,  in  addition,  the  unmistakable 
evidences  of  the  former  presence  of  man.  The  cave,  which  occurs 
in  Jurassic  rock,  is  about  forty-three  feet  wide  and  sixty-two  deep, 
branching  off  at  its  farthest  end  into  two  lateral  galleries,  respect- 
ively forty-six  and  nineteen  feet  long.  No  water  penetrates  into 
the  cave,  where,  consequently,  stalagmitic  formations  are  not  met. 
Having  dug  through  the  upper  part  of  the  floor,  which  consist- 
ed of  vegetable  earth,  mold,  and  debris,  the  explorer  came  upon 
ashes  (indicative  of  a  hearth),  flint  implements,  and  split  bones 
of  the  reindeer,  cave-bear,  horse,  elk,  and  other  quadrupeds.  At 
a  greater  depth  the  flint  implements  were  of  larger  size,  and  there 
appeared  broken  bones  of  the  mammoth,  together  with  molars 
and  a  small  tusk  of  that  animal ;  also  an  amulet  or  ornament  of 
ivory,  and  perforated  teeth  of  the  cave -bear,  wolf,  fox,  stag,  and 

occupation  of  the  Dordogne  caves,  while  the  occurrence  of  pottery,  however 
rude,  would  seem  to  indicate  a  later  age.  Yet  the  cave-bear  was  very  com- 
mon in  Germany,  as  shown  by  the  immense  number  of  bones  of  this  animal 
in  German  caves,  and  may  have  survived  longer  in  that  country  than  in 
France.  The  presence  or  absence  of  pottery,  on  the  other  hand,  affords,  in 
our  opinion,  no  absolute  test  of  relative  antiquity,  considering  that  in  those 
remote  times,  when  men  were  not  numerous,  and  doubtless  divided  into 
many  tribes  separated  by  great  distances,  a  uniformity  in  mechanical  ac- 
quirements can  not  be  supposed  to  have  existed.  Thus,  the  cave-dwellers  of 
Suabia,  though  possessing  the  ai-t  of  pottery,  may  have  lived  in  earlier  times 
than  the  more  advanced  reindeer-hunters  of  the  Vez^re,  who  yet  lacked  the 
knowledge  of  manufacturing  vessels  of  clay.  For  the  sake  of  illustration  we 
will  allude  to  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  this  country,  some  of  which  practiced 
pottery,  while  others,  although  by  no  means  deficient  in  mechanical  skill, 
were  unacquainted  with  the  manufacture  of  earthen  vessels,  and  used,  as  we 
have  previously  stated  in  a  note,  wooden  troughs  and  skins  in  their  stead. 

7 


98  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

elk.  The  accumulations  forming  the  hearth  reached  to  a  depth 
of  four  feet,  and  exhibited  no  marked  stratification.  In  the 
larger  gallery  were  found  many  bones  and  horns  of  the  reindeer 
and  elk,  a  large  tusk  and  other  remains  of  the  mammoth,  and  nu- 
merous instruments  of  flint,  but  no  traces  of  a  hearth.  This  place 
seems  to  have  been  used  as  a  sort  of  ossuary  by  the  troglodytes. 
The  smaller  gallery,  which  is  very  narrow  and  low,  has  not  been 
carefully  examined. 

During  the  excavations  nearly  two  thousand  chipped  flint 
implements  resembling  those  from  the  Dordogne  caves  were  ob- 
tained, and  the  frequent  occurrence  of  nuclei  proved  that  instru- 
ments had  been  made  in  the  cave.  The  flint  employed  by  the 
troglodytes  is  identical  with  the  kind  occurring  in  large  nodules 
in  the  Jurassic  formations  of  the  neighborhood.  From  the  total 
absence  of  broken  pottery  in  the  rubbish  of  the  cave  it  may  be 
inferred  that  its  ancient  inhabitants  were  unacquainted  with  the 
manufacture  of  clay  vessels. 

Among  the  animal  remains  obtained  in  this  cave  we  mention 
first  those  of  the  mammoth,  consisting  of  tusks,  molars,  several 
shin-bones,  a  pelvis,  and  various  other  portions  of  skeletons, 
which  belonged  to  three  individuals.  Bones  of  the  brown  bear, 
aurochs,  stag,  roe,  and  wild  boar  were  rare,  but  very  numerous 
those  of  the  cave-bear,  reindeer,  elk,  and  a  horse  of  large  size. 
The  wolf,  common  fox,  arctic  fox,  hare,  badger,  squirrel,  mouse, 
goose,  and  a  wading  bird  (represented  by  an  artificially  notched 
bone)  complete  the  fauna  of  this  primitive  resort  of  man.  The 
fact  that  the  dog  is  not  enumerated  in  the  list  can  not  surprise 
the  reader,  who  is  aware  of  the  absence  of  its  remains  in  corre- 
sponding cave  deposits  of  Southern  France  and  Wiirtemberg. 
This  animal,  as  will  be  seen,  became  attached  to  man  at  a  later 
period  of  the  Stone  Age.  Dr.  Fraas,  to  whom  the  animal  re- 
mains of  this  locality  had  been  submitted  for  examination  by 
Count  Zawisza,  noticed  that  the  Polish  cave-men,  like  those  of 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  99 

Suabia,  were  in  the  habit  of  utilizing  the  lower  jaw  of  the  cave- 
bear  by  transforming  it  into  a  rude  kind  of  hatchet,  to  be  used 
for  dismembering  game,  or  as  a  weapon  when  occasion  required. 
A  few  human  bones  were  discovered  among  the  rubbish;  but 
these,  as  well  as  the  bones  of  the  wild  boar,  roe,  and  goose,  have, 
according  to  Dr.  Fraas,  a  more  recent  appearance  than  the  rest  of 
the  remains,  and  may  have  been  brought  to  the  cave  by  animals 
of  prey,  such  as  wolves  and  foxes,  at  a  period  subsequent  to  its 
occupation  by  the  ancient  hunters. 

A  second  cave,  in  the  neighborhood  of  that  just  described,  has 
been  explored  by  Count  Zawisza.  This  cave,  too,  had  served  as 
an  abode  of  man,  but  apparently  in  later  times,  as  inciicated  by 
its  fauna — aurochs,  horse,  stag,  wild  boar,  and  roe — and  by  the 
presence  of  rude  hand-made  yet  ornamented  pottery,  and  of  a  few 
polished  stone  axes  which  lay  among  chipped  implements  of 
flint.*. 

Quite  extensive  cave  researches  lately  have  been  made  in 
Belgium,  at  the  expense  of  the  Government,  by  M.  Edward  Du- 
pont,  the  worthy  successor  of  Dr.  Schmerling,  whose  important 
labors  were  brought  to  the  reader's  notice  in  a  preceding  chapter. 
M.  Dupont's  explorations  comprised  a  great  number  of  caverns 
situated  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Lesse,  a  tributary  of  the  Meuse, 
and  more  than  half  of  them  have  furnished  unmistakable  traces 
of  prehistoric  man.  These  caves  contain,  in  descending  order, 
beds  of  brick-earth  with  angular  pebbles,  and  stratified  clay  with 
coarse  gravel,  corresponding,  according  to  M.  Dupont,  to  similar, 
or  rather  the  same,  deposits  in  the  valley,  in  which,  he  thinks,  the 
water  reached  at  times  a  height  sufficient  to  wash  its  contents  of 
earthy  matter,  clay,  and  gravel  into  the  caves,  often  surprising 
the  troglodytes,  and  compelling  them  to  sudden  flight.     The  old- 


*  Some  caves,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  were  resorted  to  during  neolithic 
times. 


100  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

er  strata  inclose  remains  of  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros,  and  cave- 
bear,  sometimes  associated  with  rude  flint  hatchets,  while  the  up- 
per layers  are  chiefly  characterized  by  bones  of  the  reindeer  and 
knife-shaped  flakes  of  flint.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the 
views  of  the  Belgian  savant  will  be  generally  adopted  by  Euro- 
pean geologists,  some  of  whom,  we  are  bound  to  say,  hesitate  to 
accept  his  conclusions. 

Want  of  space  prevents  us  from  giving  a  resume  of  M.  Du- 
pont's  discoveries,  which  would  alone  furnish  sufficient  material 
for  an  extensive  chapter.  A  few  remarks  only  can  be  offered  to 
the  reader.  The  Belgian  reindeer  hunters,  like  those  of  the  Dor- 
dogne,  inhabited  caves,  and  manufactured  their  tools  and  weapons 
of  flint,  reindeer  horn,  and  bone,  yet  without  that  degree  of  skill 
which  is  displayed  in  similar  works  of  the  French  troglodytes. 
Their  artistic  attempts  were  of  the  most  primitive  character. 
Mention  is  made  of  an  unintelligible  di'awing  on  a  piece  of  rein- 
deer horn,  and  of  a  small  exceedingly  rude  statuette  representing 
a  squatting  human  figure  without  arms,  both  found  in  a  cave  call- 
ed Trou  Magrite.  The  occurrence  of  "  batons  "  in  some  caves  also 
has  been  recorded.  These  people  subsisted,  it  seems,  entirely  by 
the  chase,  the  horse,  reindeer,  chamois,  goat,  ox,  boar,  brown  bear, 
fox,  hare,  water-rat,  several  kinds  of  birds,  and  some  species  of 
fish  principally  constituting  their  bill  of  fare.  They  disposed  of 
the  bones  of  their  game  in  the  manner  now  sufficiently  familiar 
to  the  reader.  In  the  cave  of  Chaleux,  M.  Dupont  found  the 
teeth  of  forty  horses,  and  so  many  bones  of  this  animal  that  a 
large  wagon  was  required  to  remove  them.  He  collected  in  the 
same  cave  twenty-two  pounds  of  scorched  or  roasted  bones  of  the 
common  water-rat,  which  proves  that  these  primitive  people  con- 
tented themselves  with  such  small  animals  when  nobler  and 
more  substantial  game  was  not  to  be  had.  Many  remains  of 
man  were  discovered  by  M.  Dupont  in  the  course  of  his  explora- 
tions ;  so,  for  instance,  in  the  Trou  de  la  Naulette  a  lower  human 


RESTORED  EARTHEK  VESSEL. — FROM 


THE  TROGLODYTES.  101 

jaw,  supposed  to  belong  to  the  age  of  the  mammoth,  and  distin- 
guished by  a  deficient  development  of  the  chin,  "  exaggerating," 
according  to  M.  Dupont,  "  those  points  in  which  the  most  inferior 
of  the  living  races  are  distinguished  from  ourselves." 

The  Trou  du  Frontal  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  sepulchral 
place  of  the  reindeer  period.  Here 
were  found  the  bones  of  sixteen  hu- 
man individuals,  children  and  adults, 
but  only  two  skulls  in  a  sufficient 
state  of  preservation  to  allow  compar- 
isons. These  skulls  are  not  elongated, 
but  round,  and  one  of  them  is  remark- 
able for  an  extremely  oblique  position 
of  the  teeth — or  prognathism — a  feat- 
ure considered  as  characteristic  of  in- 
ferior races  of  man.  The  bones  lay  the  trou  du  frontal. 
mingled  together  in  a  recess  of  the  cave  which  was  originally 
closed  by  a  stone  slab,  like  the  burial  grotto  of  Aurignac,  and 
contained  also  a  hearth,  around  which  was  scattered  the  refuse 
of  meals,  probably  held  in  honor  of  the  dead.  In  this  cave  were 
found  the  fragments  of  a  rude  clay  vessel  which,  after  its  restora- 
tion, presents  the  form  given  in  our  drawing.  It  has  a  rounded 
bottom,  and  is  therefore  provided  with  pierced  projections  to  fa- 
cilitate suspension.  The  occurrence  of  pottery,  it  should  be  stated, 
was  not  confined  to  the  Trou  du  Frontal,  other  Belgian  stations 
having  likewise  furnished  fragments  of  earthen  vessels.  It  is 
worthy  of  special  mention  that  in  this  cave,  and  in  others  of  the 
neighborhood,  pierced  fossil  shells  and  minerals  have  occurred, 
which  evidently  were  brought  from  considerable  distances.  The 
Oerithium  giganteum,  for  instance,  a  shell  of  large  size,  can  not 
have  been  obtained  from  nearer  localities  than  the  environs  of 
Rheims  or  Versailles,  and  much  of  the  flint  used  as  the  material 
for  tools  is  identical  with  a  variety  found  in  the  Department  of 


102  EAELY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

the  Marne,  in  France.  These  facts  indicate  that  a  kind  of  traffic 
or  exchange  already  existed  in  the  earliest  times  among  the  bar- 
barous tribes  of  Europe. 

The  latest,  but  certainly  not  the  least  interesting,  discoveries 
relating  to  the  reindeer  epoch  were  made  in  Switzerland  during 
the  year  1874.  Two  caves  in  the  neighborhood  of  Schaffhausen, 
one  of  them  near  the  railroad  station  of  Thayngen,  had  long  been 
known  and  frequently  visited,  though  never  with  the  intention 
of  exploring  them,  until  two  gentlemen,  Messrs.  Merk  and  Joos, 
were  seized  with  the  prevailing  enthusiasm  for  cave  researches, 
and  dug  into  their  floors  in  order  to  ascertain  what  they  contain- 
ed. The  exertions  of  these  explorers  were  rewarded  by  the  dis- 
covery of  two  important  stations  of  the  reindeer  period,  analo- 
gous to  those  with  which  the  reader  is  acquainted.  The  Thayn- 
gen cave,  in  particular,  has  yielded  an  abundance  of  animal  re- 
mains and  of  manufactured  objects,  affording  additional  means  for 
interpreting  man's  mode  of  life  during  the  epoch  which  we  have 
l)een  attempting  to  describe.  It  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most 
interesting  prehistoric  retreats  as  yet  discovered  in  any  part  of 
Europe.  To  judge  from  the  number  of  remains  of  the  reindeer 
and  Alpine  hare,  these  animals  were  chiefly  hunted  by  the  Swiss 
cave-men ;  for,  after  the  classification  of  the  bones  and  teeth  had 
been  completed,  the  presence  of  at  least  five  hundred  hares  was 
ascertained,  while  the  reindeer  remains  pointed  to  two  hundred 
and  fifty  individuals.  The  fauna  of  this  locality  further  com- 
prises the  horse,  stag,  ibex,  chamois,  wolf,  several  kinds  of  fox 
(among  them  the  arctic  fox),  the  gluttoii,  brown  bear,  aurochs, 
mammoth,  rhinoceros,  and  cave-lion,  the  last-named  three  species 
indicated  by  rather  scanty  remains,  which  occurred  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  cave  deposit.  Remains  of  the  cave -bear  and  cave- 
hyena  are  not  enumerated.  Among  the  birds  white  grouse, 
ducks,  and  swans  predominate,  and  their  bones  (which  contain  no 
marrow)  have  been  left  entire ;  the  large  bones  of  quadrupeds, 


THE  TROGLODYTES. 


103 


however,  invariably  appeared  in  fragments,  and  the  pebbles  used 
for  breaking  them  were  lying  among  the  refuse.  It  should  be 
mentioned  that  the  deposit  in  the  cave  of  Thayngen  contained  no 
distinct  traces  of  the  dog  or  of  other  domestic  animals,  which,  as 
the  reader  knows,  are  generally  missing  at  the  stations  of  the 
reindeer  period.  Had  they  not  yet  made  their  appearance  in 
Europe  at  this  epoch?  However  that  may  be,  we  shall  meet 
them  hereafter  as  the  associates  of  the  more  advanced  prehis- 
toric inhabitant  of  that  part  of  the  world. 


REPRESENTATIONS    OF    ANIMALS    FROM    THAYNGEN,   SWITZERLAND  (NATURAL    SIZE). 

1.  Head  of  a  musk-ox  carved  from  reindeer  horn.     2  and  3,  Drawings  of  a  fox  and  a  bear. 

In  technical  ability  the  troglodytes  of  Thayngen  were  equal, 
to  say  the  least,  to  the  reindeer  hunters  who  have  left  their  traces 
in  the  caves  and  rock-shelters  of  Southern  France.  Like  the  lat- 
ter, they  employed  the  antlers  of  the  reindeer  as  the  material  of 
which  they  manufactured  their  needles,  piercers,  and  arrow-heads, 
and  these  tools  and  weapons  are  said  to  be  worked  with  an  as- 
tonishing degree  of  precision.  The  implements  for  making  them 
consisted,  as  in  other  corresponding  localities,  of  flint  flakes,  many 


104  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

of  which  were  found  imbedded  in  the  floor  of  the  cave.  Here, 
too,  were  met  specimens  of  prehistoric  art  in  the  shape  of  repre- 
sentations of  animals  drawn  on  reindeer  horn,  bone,  and  small 
plates  of  brown  coal,  and  even  carvings  were  not  wanting. 
Among  the  latter  should  be  mentioned  the  head  of  a  musk-ox, 
somewhat  clumsily  executed,  it  must  be  admitted,  yet  recogniza- 
ble by  the  peculiar  position  of  the  horns.  The  head,  of  which 
we  give  a  drawing,  appears  to  have  originally  belonged  to  an  en- 
tire figure  of  the  animal.  Among  the  osseous  remains  of  the 
cave,  however,  none  of  the  musk-ox  have  occurred,  and  their  ab- 
sence may  perhaps  be  accounted  for  by  the  scarcity  of  the  spe- 
cies. Far  better  are  the  engraved  delineations  of  animals,  as,  for 
instance,  several  drawings  of  the  horse,  which  rival,  according  to 
Professor  Riitimeyer,  similar  designs  seen  in  illustrated  works 
of  our  time.  They  are,  indeed,  minutely  and  correctly  drawn, 
showing  an  equine  type  with  erect  mane,  shaggy  fur,  and  slender 
limbs.  We  further  reproduce  here  two  drawings  on  bone,  repre- 
senting a  fox  and  a  bear.  Both  are  excellent  specimens  in  their 
way,  displaying  a  close  observation  of  nature,  and  even  a  certain 
humor,  which  is  more  particularly  expressed  in  the  attitude  and 
sly  face  of  the  fox.  But  the  most  notable  object  of  this  class  dis- 
covered in  the  Thayngen  cave  is  a  delineation  on  a  piece  of  rein- 
deer horn,  representing  a  reindeer  in  the  act  of  browsing.  This 
drawing  betokens  no  small  degree  of  skill,  and  undoubtedly 
ranks,  for  the  present,  as  the  best  of  its  kind  transmitted  to  us 
from  those  remote  times.  The  designer  evidently  was  a  Land 
seer  among  the  troglodytes.  We  place  a  copy  of  the  drawing  be 
fore  the  reader,  who  has  become  acquainted  with  the  most  re 
markable  productions  of  a  similar  character  derived  from  the  sta 
tions  of  the  Dordogne,  and  is  thus  enabled  to  make  comparisons, 
The  representation,  it  will  be  seen  at  once,  is  not  a  correct  one  in 
an  artistic  sense,  but  nevertheless  an  admirable  work,  when  the 
circumstances  under  which  it  originated  are  taken  into  considera- 


THE  TROGLODYTES. 


105 


tion.  The  original  tracing,  of  course,  follows  the  curvature  of  the 
reindeer  horn,  while  our  copy  represents  the  drawing  as  though 
it  had  been  executed  on  a  plain  surface. 

An  artistic  tendency,  it  thus  becomes  manifest,  was  not  con- 
fined to  the  troglodytes  of  Southern  France,  but  was  shared  by 
the  primitive  people  who  lived  under  analogous  conditions  of 
existence  in  the  north  of  the  present  Helvetian  republic.  The 
question,  however,  whether  such  a  peculiar  similarity  of  taste  also 
implies  an  affinity  of  race  can  not  be  answered  before  more  con- 
vincing proofs  have  come  to  light. 


FIOURB    OF   ▲   BBOWSIMG   KEINDEBR   KNORAVED   ON   REINDEER   HORN   (NATURAL   SIZE). — FROM 

THATNGEN,  SWITZERLAND. 


IDEAL   RBPKE8ENTATION   OF   A   SWISS    LAKE-VILLAGK. 


CHAPTER  V. 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS. 

The  later  or  neolithic  period  of  the  European  Stone  Age, 
upon  which  we  are  now  entering,  marks  a  great  advance  in  the 
industrial  acquirements  and  social  condition  of  prehistoric  man 
—  a  change  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  altered  climate  of 
Europe,  which  had  gradually  lost  its  prevailing  severe  character, 
and  given  place  to  a  more  steady  temperature  approaching  that 
of  our  time.  Such  a  change,  however  slow  in  its  progress,  could 
not  fail  to  exert  its  influence  upon  the  organic  world,  and  we 
therefore  meet  at  this  period  a  fauna  of  essentially  modified 
character.  The  mammoth,  rhinoceros,  Irish  deer,  great  bear,  lion, 
and  hyena  had  worked  out  their  mission  in  Europe;  while  the 
musk-ox,  reindeer,  chamois,  ibex,  and  other  quadrupeds  adapted 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  107 

to  a  rigid  temperature  had  either  migrated  northward  or  chosen 
the  cold  heights  of  mountains  as  their  abodes.  On  the  other 
hand,  several  species  of  animals,  some  of  them,  perhaps,  derived 
from  distant  countries,  appear  as  the  domesticated  associates  of 
man,  who  was  now  no  longer  a  mere  savage  hunter,  but  had  be- 
come, in  some  districts  at  least,  a  tiller  of  the  soil  and  a  consumer 
of  vegetable  food,  though  still  applying  himself  to  the  chase  and 
to  fishing.  During  the  paleolithic  ages,  of  which  an  account  was 
given  in  the  preceding  chapters,  man  made  his  stone  tools  and 
weapons  almost  exclusively  of  flint,  reducing  them  to  the  intend- 
ed shape  by  chipping  alone,  not  having  learned  yet  to  improve 
their  form  and  efficiency  by  the  process  of  grinding.  It  was 
quite  different  in  the  times  which  we  are  now  considering.  The 
stone  implements  of  the  neolithic  period  exhibit  a  greater  variety 
of  well-defined  forms,  and  are  no  longer  exclusively  made  of  flint, 
but  also  of  other  kinds  of  stone,  such  as  diorite,  serpentine,  basalt, 
quartzite,  and  similar  suitable  materials.  Many  are  brought  into 
their  final  shapes  by  grinding  and  polishing — a  method  which 
characterizes  the  later  Stone  Age,  as  we  have  stated  in  our  first 
chapter.  Neolithic  axes  and  chisels  are  mostly  polished.  Yet 
the  practice  of  chipping  flint  into  arrow  and  spear  heads,  knives, 
scrapers,  etc.,  had  by  no  means  fallen  into  disuse,  the  articles  pro- 
duced in  this  way  being,  on  the  contrary,  not  only  very  numer- 
ous, but  also  of  superior  workmanship,  insomuch  that  flint -chip- 
ping may  be  said  to  have  assumed  in  this  period  almost  the 
character  of  an  art.  The  manufacture  of  clay  vessels  was  gen- 
eral during  this  epoch. 

Were  the  men  of  neolithic  times  the  descendants  of  the  con- 
temporaries of  the  mammoth,  the  great  bear,  and  the  reindeer, 
or  immigrants  from  abroad — perhaps  from  Asia — who  brought 
with  them  new  arts  and  the  animals  they  had  tamed  in  their 
old  homes?  Both  views  have  their  supporters.  There  certainly 
seems  to  be  a  gap  between  paleolithic  and  neolithic  implements, 


108  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

the  gradual  transition  from  one  class  to  the  other  not  being  as 
yet  represented  with  sufficient  distinctness  by  intermediate  forms. 
Prehistoric  archaeology,  however,  is  almost  daily  enriched  with 
new  discoveries,  and  thus  we  may  hope  that  this  interesting 
question  ultimately  will  be  decided,  either  in  one  direction  or  the 
other. 

On  the  indented  coasts  of  the  Danish  islands  of  Seeland, 
Fiinen,  Moen,  and  Samsoe,  and  along  the  fjords  of  the  Peninsula 
of  Jutland,  there  occur,  mostly  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  sea,  considerable  accumulations  of  shells,  which  were  for- 
merly supposed  to  have  been  deposited  by  the  sea  at  a  time 
when  the  level  of  the  land  was  lower  than  at  present.  It  was 
noticed,  however,  that  the  shell -heaps  showed  no  trace  of  the 
stratification  which  always  characterizes  marine  deposits,  and 
that  they,  instead  of  inclosing  shells  of  mollusks  of  every  age, 
contained  merely  those  of  full-grown  specimens,  which  belonged, 
moreover,  to  a  limited  number  of  edible  species.  Upon  further 
examination  there  were  found  among  the  shells  the  broken  bones 
of  different  species  of  wild  quadrupeds  and  birds,  and  the  re- 
mains of  fishes;  also  implements  of  flint,  horn,  and  bone,  fragments 
of  a  rude  kind  of  pottery,  charcoal,  and  ashes,  but  no  objects 
of  metal  whatever.  The  artificial  orio-in  of  these  accumulations 
being  now  established,  they  were  recognized  as  the  amassed  re- 
mains of  the  repasts  of  a  population  that  dwelt  in  former  ages 
on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  pursuing  the  chase,  but  chiefly  the 
capture  of  fish  and  shell-fish.  The  Danes  signify  shell-heaps  of 
this  description  as  Kjolckenmoddings,  a  word  meaning  "  kitchen 
refuse"  in  literal  translation;  but  the  term  hitchen- middens  is 
often  employed  in  English,  midden  being  a  name  still  used  in 
the  North  of  England  to  designate  a  refuse -heap.  More  than 
fifty  kitchen-middens  have  been  examined  conjointly  by  Messrs. 
Forchhammer,  Steenstrup,  and  Worsaae,  distinguished  respective- 
ly for  their  proficiency  in  the  departments  of  geology,  natural 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  109 

history,  and  archaeology ;  and  the  results  of  their  investigations, 
contained  in  several  reports  addressed  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Copenhagen,  have  added  in  a  great  measure  to  our  knowledge 
of  prehistoric  man  in  the  North  of  Europe. 

The  thickness  of  the  shell -beds,  it  was  ascertained,  varies 
from  three  to  five  feet,  though  they  reach  in  some  places  to  a 
height  of  ten  feet.  Their  length  sometimes  amounts  to  a  thou- 
sand feet,  and  they  vary  in  width,  though  not  exceeding  two 
hundred  feet.  One  of  the  largest  Kjokkenmoddings  is  that  of 
Meilgaard,  in  the  north-east  of  Jutland.  Very  extensive  accumu- 
lations sometimes  present  an  undulating  surface,  the  refuse  hav- 
ing been  heaped  up  more  abundantly  in  some  points  than  in 
others;  and  occasionally  the  heaps  surround  an  irregular  free 
space,  where  the  coast  people  doubtless  had  built  their  huts, 
which  certainly  were  of  the  most  primitive  description,  probably 
consisting  of  a  number  of  poles  stuck  in  the  ground  and  covered 
with  skins.  The  oyster  is  the  species  of  shell -fish  occurring 
most  abundantly  in  the  kitchen -middens,  and  constituting  some- 
times almost  entirely  their  contents.  Next  follow,  in  the  order 
of  their  frequency,  the  cockle,  mussel,  and  periwinkle,  or  lAtto- 
rina.  In  regard  to  the  oyster,  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  this 
bivalve  has  disappeared  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  kitchen- 
middens,  being  now  confined  to  a  few  localities  on  the  Cattegat. 
Yet  even  there  it  never  attains  the  large  size  characterizing  the 
oysters  of  the  ancient  shell- beds.  The  cockles  and  periwinkles, 
too,  though  still  living  in  the  same  waters,  are  much  smaller  than 
those  of  ancient  times.  These  changes  have  been  attributed  to 
a  diminution  of  the  saline  matter  in  the  water  of  the  Baltic  Sea. 
Among  the  remains  of  fishes,  those  of  the  herring,  cod-fish,  floun- 
der, and  eel  are  quite  frequent,  and  their  presence  proves  that 
the  coast  people  ventured  upon  the  open  sea,  doubtless  in  small 
boats  formed  of  trunks  of  trees,  and  hollowed  by  the  application 
of  fire.     Remains  of  aquatic  birds,  such  as  wild  ducks,  geese,  and 


110  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUIiOPK 

swans,  are  often  met.  The  great  penguin  or  auk  (^Alca  impen- 
nis),  supposed  to  be  now  entirely  extinct,  and  the  capercailzie,  or 
mountain  cock  {Tetrao  urogallus)^  a  bird  no  longer  found  in 
Denmark,  though  still  inhabiting  the  forests  of  Germany,  deserve 
special  mention.  The  last-named  bird  feeds  in  spring  chiefly  on 
the  buds  of  the  pine,  a  kind  of  tree  not  growing  naturally  at 
present  in  Denmark,  but  very  common  during  tbe  Stone  Age,  as 
has  been  ascertained  by  the  examination  of  Danish  peat  bogs. 
Thus  it  would  seem  that  the  disappearance  of  the  pine  from 
Denmark  caused  the  capercailzie  to  leave  that  country.  Bones 
of  the  domestic  fowl,  the  stork,  sparrow,  and  swallow,  are  totally 
wanting  in  the  kitchen-middens.  The  mammals  that  have  there 
left  their  remains  are  the  stag,  roe,  wild  boar,  urus,  beaver,  seal, 
wolf,  fox,  lynx,  wild  cat,  marten,  otter,  hedgehog,  water-rat,  and 
dog.  Next  to  the  mollusks,  the  stag,  roe,  and  wild  boar  evident- 
ly constituted  the  principal  food  of  the  coast  people.  The  dog, 
which  is  represented  by  a  small  race,  was  their  only  domesticated 
animal,  but  also  eaten  by  them  in  the  fashion  of  our  Indians, 
who  keep  dogs  as  companions,  and  use  them  as  food,  especially 
on  solemn  occasions.  The  urus,  it  will  be  remembered,  has  be- 
come extinct,  and  the  beaver  no  longer  inhabits  Denmark.  No 
bones  of  the  hare  have  been  found  in  the  kitchen-middens,  per- 
haps for  the  reason  that  those  ancient  people  were  prevented  by 
superstitious  motives,  like  the  Laplanders  of  our  day,  from  eating 
that  animal.  The  reindeer  and  elk  are  thus  far  missing  in  the 
refuse  ■  heaps,  though  their  bones  have  been  discovered  among 
other  remains  of  the  Stone  Age  in  Denmark.  The  marrow-bones 
of  the  ruminants  and  wild  boars  are  broken  or  split  for  extract- 
ing their  contents,  and  they  often  exhibit  the  cuts  produced  by 
flint  implements.  When  the  bones  were  thrown  away,  the  dogs 
made  a  second  meal  of  them,  eating  the  smaller  ones,  especially 
bird-bones,  and  gnawing  off  the  soft  portions  from  those  of  larger 
size.     Professor  Steenstrup  has  made  interesting  experiments  to 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  W\ 

elucidate  that  fact.  Locking  up  some  dogs,  and  restricting  them 
to  a  bone  diet,  he  ascertained  that  all  the  bones  rejected  by  the 
dogs  were  the  same  that  are  present  in  the  kitchen -middens 
while  the  bones  or  portions  of  bones  devoured  by  them  are  cor- 
respondingly missing  there. 


IMPLEMENTS  FKOM   THE    KJOKKENMODDING  AT   MEILGAARD. 

1.  Pierced  hammer  or  adze  of  stag  horn  (one-third  of  natural  size).     2.  Flint  flake  (half  size). 

3.  Shell-mound  axe  (half  size). 

Rude  hearths  consisting  of  a  kind  of  pav^ement  of  pebbles,  not 
exceeding  the  size  of  a  man's  fist,  have  been  discovered  in  the  ref- 
use-heaps. These  fire-places  are  more  or  less  circular,  only  a  few 
feet  in  diameter,  and  surrounded  with  charcoal  and  ashes.  The 
coast  people  manufactured  a  kind  of  very  primitive  pottery,  frag- 
ments of  which  are  found  commingled  with  the  shells.  Their 
vessels  were  formed  by  hand,  the  potter's  wheel  being  then,  and 
probably  much  later,  an  apparatus  unknown  in  Europe.  The 
clay  is  always  mixed  with  coarse  sand,  produced  by  the  tritura- 
tion of  stones,  and  evidently  added  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
the  cracking  of  the  vessels  while  in  the  fire.  This  device  was 
well  known  to  the  aborigines  of  this  country,  who  mixed  the  clay 
with  gross-grained  sand,  but  often  employed  pounded  shells  in  its 


112  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

stead.  The  Kjokkenmoddings  have  yielded  a  number  of  awls, 
chisels,  and  other  tools  made  of  horn  and  bone,  and  in  great 
abundance  chipped  flint  implements,  such  as  flakes,  piercers,  sling- 
stones,  spear -heads,  and  axes  of  a  peculiar  shape,  and  therefore 
called  "shell -mound  axes."  Yet  nearly  all  these  objects  are  of 
rude  workmanship,  and  in  no  way  comparable  to  the  excellent 
weapons  and  tools  occurring,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter,  so  fre- 
quently in  other  parts  of  Denmark.  It  would  be  doubtful,  there- 
fore, whether  the  kitchen -middens  belong  to  the  neolithic  or  to 
an  earlier  period,  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact  that,  together  with 
the  many  uncouth  articles,  a  few  well-finished  arrow  and  spear 
heads,  and  even  some  polished  implements,  have  been  found. 
The  manufacture  of  articles  of  this  better  class  required  much  la- 
bor, and  the  people  who  have  left  the  kitchen-middens  as  their 
memorials  doubtless  took  care  not  to  lose  them  among  the  refuse, 
while  they  paid  less  attention  to  the  rude  implements,  which 
could  be  replaced  by  new  ones  without  much  trouble.  The 
fauna  of  the  kitchen-middens,  moreover,  is  not  that  of  paleolithic 
times,  being  composed  of  animals  still  living  in  Europe,  excepting 
the  urus,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  became  extinct  during  the  his- 
torical period.  The  great  auk,  a  bird  incapable  of  flying,  being 
provided  with  mere  apologies  for  wings,  is  said  to  have  been  to- 
tally exterminated  everywhere  by  man,  though  it  is  not  altogether 
improbable  that  it  still  survives  in  lonely  localities  beyond  the 
reach  of  human  cruelty.*  Under  these  circumstances,  we  may  be 
justified  in  referring  for  the  present  the  Kjokkenmoddings  to  the 
early  part  of  the  neolithic  period. 

The  coast  people  certainly  led  a  very  rude  life,  being  unac- 
quainted with  agriculture,  and  compelled  to  subsist  entirely  on 
the  spoils  of  the  sea  and  the  forest.     It  is  not  quite  certain 

*  Specimens  of  this  bird  are  still  preserved  in  ornithological  collections. 
According  to  Professor  Vogt,  the  great  auk  was  found  in  Iceland,  its  last  re- 
treat, until  the  year  1842,  after  which  it  became  extinct. 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  113 

whether  they  inhabited  the  sea-board  only  in  summer  or  during 
the  whole  year,  though  the  character  of  the  bones  and  antlers, 
which  belong  to  animals  of  different  ages,  would  favor  the  view 
that  they  lived  there  through  successive  seasons.  Notwithstand- 
ing their  savage  state,  they  were  certainly  free  from  the  practice 
of  cannibalism,  no  human  bones  having  been  found  among  the 
refuse.  It  is  not  known  how  they  disposed  of  their  dead,  and 
hence  no  human  remains  that  can  with  certainty  be  ascribed  to 
the  coast  people  are  extant.  From  some  Danish  tumuli,  how- 
ever, skulls  have  been  obtained  which  are  supposed  to  belong  to 
the  age  of  the  kitchen-middens.  These  skulls  are  of  small  size 
and  round,  like  those  of  the  Laplanders,  but  differing  from  them 
by  a  more  retreating  forehead  and  very  prominent  ridges  above 
the  eyes. 

Kitchen-middens  have  been  discovered  in  other  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, though  nowhere  in  such  number  and  so  well  characterized 
as  in  Denmark ;  and  we  may  further  state  that  they  are  not  con- 
fined to  Europe,  but  occur  also  along  the  coasts  of  other  conti- 
nents. In  America,  for  instance,  similar  artificial  shell  deposits 
are  frequent,  and  have  been  observed  from  Newfoundland  to 
Tien'a  del  Fuego,  and  on  various  points  of  the  Pacific  shore. 
Coast  tribes,  deriving  their  subsistence  chiefly  from  the  sea,  neces- 
sarily will  leave  everywhere  the  tokens  of  their  presence.  But 
we  must  hasten  to  pass  over  to  another  subject. 

Alonzo  de  Ojeda,  a  Spanish  nobleman,  who  had  been  a  com- 
panion of  Columbus  on  his  second  expedition,  undertook  in  1499 
independently  a  voyage  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  the  north- 
ern coast  of  South  America.  He  was  accompanied  by  the  Flor- 
entine Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  has  left  an  account  of  this  voyage, 
from  which  we  quote  the  following  passage,  in  the  words  of 
Washington  Irving :  "  Proceeding  along  the  coast,  they  arrived  at 
a  vast  deep  gulf,  resembling  a  tranquil  lake,  entering  which,  they 
beheld  on  the  eastern  side  a  village,  the  construction  of  which 

8 


114  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

struck  them  with  surprise.  It  consisted  of  twenty  large  houses, 
shaped  like  bells,  and  built  on  piles  driven  into  the  bottom  of 
the  lake,  which  in  this  part  was  limpid  and  of  but  little  depth. 
Each  house  was  provided  with  a  draw-bridge  and  with  canoes, 
by  which  the  communication  was  carried  on.  From  this  resem- 
blance to  the  Italian  city,  Ojeda  gave  the  bay  the  name  of  the 
Gulf  of  Venice,  and  it  is  called  at  the  present  day  Venezuela,  or 
Little  Venice.  The  Indian  name  was  Coquibacoa."  We  can 
well  imagine  the  surprise  of  the  adventuresome  voyager,  whose 
baptismal  name  is  perpetuated  in  that  of  our  vast  continent,  at 
beholding  this  curious  Indian  village  built  on  piles  in  the  water ; 
yet  he  certainly  did  not  dream  that  the  remains  of  similarly  con- 
structed habitations  of  men  who  lived  tens  of  centuries  ago  lay 
hidden  in  the  bosom  of  Swiss  and  Italian  lakes.  In  fact,  no 
one  thought  of  lacustrine  settlements  until  the  year  1854,  when 
their  traces  were  first  recognized  in  the  Lake  of  Zurich,  though 
the  existence  of  piles  in  the  lakes  of  Switzerland  was  well  known 
to  fishermen,  whose  nets  often  had  been  caught  and  damaged 
by  them.  There  had  also  occasionally  been  found  in  the  mud  of 
the  lakes  pieces  of  wrought  deer  horn,  fragments  of  clay  vessels, 
and  objects  of  stone  and  bronze,  which  were  looked  at  with  great 
curiosity,  and  elicited  all  sorts  of  comments,  until  finally  the  chil- 
dren took  hold  of  them  and  used  them  as  toys.  In  the  winter 
months  of  1854,  the  water  in  the  Swiss  lakes  sunk  much  below 
its  ordinary  level,  laying  bare  large  tracts  of  land  along  their 
shores,  and  thus  affording  the  people  of  the  neighborhood  a  rare 
chance  for  adding  to  their  lands  by  building  walls  near  the  wa- 
ter's edge.  So  it  happened  at  Meilen,  on  the  Lake  of  Zurich. 
Some  persons,  desirous  of  enlarging  their  gardens,  erected  squares 
of  walls  far  into  the  bed  of  the  lake,  raising  the  area  within  the 
walls  with  loam,  which  was  dug  from  the  denuded  lake  bottom. 
During  these  labors  the  workmen  came  upon  a  layer  of  black 
mold,  from  which  they  extracted  pieces  of  a  rude  kind  of  pot- 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  115 

tery,  articles  of  stone,  bone,  and  horn ;  also  hazel-nuts  and  other 
vegetable  remains.  As  the  work  progressed  there  appeared  nu- 
merous wooden  posts,  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  thick,  which 
were  standing  in  rows  only  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a  half  apart  from 
each  other,  and  so  soft  that  the  spade  cut  through  them  with 
great  ease.  The  teacher  of  the  place  collected  the  various  objects 
found  in  the  black  layer,  and  notified  the  Antiquarian  Society  of 
Zurich  of  their  discovery.  Some  members  of  that  society,  among 
them  its  president.  Dr.  Ferdinand  Keller,  proceeded  without  delay 
to  Meilen,  in  order  to  inspect  the  relics  and  the  place  where  they 
had  been  exhumed ;  and  Dr.  Keller,  being  an  antiquary  of  note, 
and  well  acquainted  with  prehistoric  manufactures,  recognized 
the  various  articles  at  once  as  axes,  chisels,  whetstones,  net-sink- 
ers, grain -crushers,  parts  of  weapons,  and  cooking -vessels  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  this  locality.  The  relics,  it  was  ascertain- 
ed, were  most  abundant  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
pUes,  while  they  became  less  frequent,  and  finally  disappeared,  at 
a  greater  distance  from  them,  a  fact  indicative  of  a  connection  be- 
tween the  piles  and  the  antique  objects  of  human  workmanship ; 
and  Dr.  Keller,  summing  up  his  observations,  concluded  that  the 
piles  had  served  as  the  supports  of  platforms  on  which  the  an- 
cient people  erected  their  dwellings,  thus  living  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  and  at  some  distance  from  the  shore,  with  which 
they  communicated  by  means  of  a  narrow  bridge.  To  Dr.  Kel- 
ler, therefore,  belongs  the  merit  of  having  first  pointed  out  the 
true  character  of  lacustrine  remains,  and  of  having  inaugurated  a 
series  of  discoveries  hardly  surpassed  in  importance  by  any  yet 
made  in  the  domain  of  prehistoric  archaeology.  It  was  now  re- 
membered that,  in  times  not  long  past,  fishermen  had  lived  in 
cabins  built  in  the  Limmat,  a  small  river  issuing  from  the  Lake 
of  Zurich.  The  works  of  modern  travelers  were  found  to  contain 
accounts  of  certain  Asiatic  and  Polynesian  islanders  who  still  in- 
habit buildings  erected  on  piles  in  the  water,  thus  perpetuating  a 


116  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

custom  prevailing  in  times  beyond  record  and  tradition  in  the 
lake  regions  of  Switzerland ;  and  a  passage  in  Herodotus,  relating 
to  the  Pseonians,  a  tribe  who  dwelt,  520  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  on  Lake  Prasias,  in  Thrace  (modern  Roumelia),  was  now 
often  quoted  as  illustrative  of  the  ancient  Helvetian  mode  of  life. 
According  to  the  historian  just  mentioned,  the  Pseonians  lived 
upon  the  lake  in  dwellings  erected  on  platforms  which  were  sup- 
ported by  piles  and  connected  with  the  land  by  narrow  bridges. 
They  were  polygamists,  and  a  law  directed  that  for  each  wife 
three  piles  should  be  added  to  the  structure.  There  was  a  hut 
for  every  family,  with  a  trap-door  giving  access  to  the  lake  be- 
neath. The  small  children  were  tied  by  the  foot  with  a  string, 
lest  they  should  fall  into  the  water.  The  lake-people  fed  their 
horses  and  other  beasts  with  fish,  of  which  there  was  an  aston- 
ishing abundance  in  the  lake. 

When  the  results  of  Dr.  Keller's  investigations  became  known 
by  his  writings,  a  general  search  for  similar  memorials  of  former 
times  was  made  in  the  many  lakes  of  the  republic,  and  such  un- 
expected success  rewarded  the  efforts  of  the  explorers  that  up 
to  this  date,  twenty  years  after  the  discovery  at  Meilen,  the  ex- 
istence of  more  than  two  hundred  lake  settlements  in  Switzerland 
and  a  part  of  Germany  bordering  on  the  Lake  of  Constance  has 
been  ascertained.  In  these  researches  the  fishermen,  who  knew 
well  the  shallow  places  of  the  lakes  where  piles  occurred,  proved 
excellent  guides.  Remains  of  ancient  lacustrine  settlements,  it 
should  be  stated,  are  by  no  means  confined  to  Switzerland  and 
a  small  portion  of  Southern  Germany,  but  also  have  been  discov- 
ered in  the  Lombardian  lakes,  in  Savoy,  Mecklenburg,  Bavaria, 
Austria,  and  Prussia,  and  in  several  districts  of  France,  even  at 
the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  habit  of 
erecting  dwellings  in  lakes  was  at  one  period  widely  spread  over 
Europe.  Nowhere,  however,  have  these  remains  been  found  in 
greater  number  than  in  Switzerland,  a  country  abounding  in 


KITCEEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  \\^ 

lakes  which  naturally  invited  to  such  aquatic  colonies.  In  fact, 
the  shore-lines  of  most  of  the  Helvetian  lakes  are  marked  vrith 
the  traces  of  these  ancient  habitations.  We  mention  in  this 
connection  the  lakes  of  Neuchdtel,  Geneva,  Constance,  Bienne, 
Morat,  Zug,  Zurich,  Sempach,  Pj^ffikon  (canton  of  Zurich),  Moos- 
seedorf  (near  Berne),  Nussbaumen  (canton  of  Thurgau),  Inkwyl 
(near  Soleure),  and  Wauwyl  (canton  of  Lucerne).  In  the  Lake 
of  Neuch^tel  forty -six  settlements  have  been  counted;  in  the 
Lake  of  Constance,  thirty -two;  in  that  of  Geneva,  twenty -four; 
in  the  Lake  of  Bienne,  twenty -one,  etc.;  and  their  number  is 
constantly  increasing  by  the  discovery  of  hitherto  unknown 
sites. 

The  oldest  lake  settlements  date  back  to  the  neolithic  peri- 
od, when,  as  the  reader  knows,  only  implements  of  chipped  and 
polished  stone,  of  bone,  horn,  and  wood,  were  in  use.  The  pile- 
work  at  the  bank  of  Lake  Piaffikon,  near  Robenhausen,  for  in- 
stance, has  not  yielded  any  articles  of  bronze ;  and  at  Meilen  only 
a  bronze  celt  (or  hatchet)  and  a  bracelet  of  the  same  alloy  were 
found,  which  seems  to  indicate  that  this  colony  still  flourished 
at  the  time  when  bronze  was  introduced.  There  are  many  other 
lake  settlements  in  which,  among  hundreds  of  articles  of  stone, 
horn,  bone,  or  wood,  not  the  slightest  trace  of  metal  has  occurred. 
These  stations  of  the  pure  Stone  Age  are  chiefly  found  in  East- 
em  Switzerland.  Most  of  those  in  the  western  lakes  of  the 
Helvetian  republic  have  furnished  articles  both  of  stone  and  of 
bronze,  the  latter  of  great  variety  and  exquisite  workmanship  ;* 
and  in  some  stations  tools  and  weapons  of  iron,  thought  to  be 
Gallic  in  character,  and  even  coins  and  other  objects  of  Roman 
origin,  have  come  to  light.  It  thus  appears  that  these  lacustrine 
colonies  existed  for  a  very  long  period,  which  was  characterized 


*  They  chiefly  consist  of  leaf-shaped  swords,  daggers,  celts,  spear  and  ar- 
row heads,  knives,  sickles,  fish-hooks,  pins,  rings,  and  bracelets. 


118  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

by  remarkable  changes  in  the  condition  of  man,  whose  progress, 
whatever  its  causes  may  have  been,  can  be  traced  in  an  uninter- 
rupted line.  Though  some  of  the  settlements  are  supposed  to 
have  been  abandoned  toward  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era, 
it  is  notable  that  they  are  not  mentioned  by  Caesar,  who  had  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  Helvetians  by  his  wars,  nor  by  Pliny, 
an  author  noted  for  his  propensity  to  dwell  on  details.  No  ac- 
count, no  tradition,  alludes  to  these  peculiar  structures. 

"  At  first  glance,"  says  Professor  Desor,*  "  the  idea  may  seem 
strange,  if  not  absurd,  that  men  should  have  established  them- 
selves on  the  water  instead  of  pitching  their  tents  or  building 
their  cabins  on  terra  firma;  but  closer  reflection  will  enable  us 
to  comprehend  that  at  the  origin  of  the  lacustrine  period,  at  an 
epoch  when  the  soil  of  Switzerland  was  covered  with  forests  and 
the  borders  of  the  lakes  probably  occupied  by  marshes,  these 
lacustrine  abodes  may  have  offered  to  their  inhabitants  a  more 
secure  asylum  against  the  ambush  of  enemies  and  the  attack  of 
savage  animals." 

The  following  remarks,  of  course,  relate  exclusively  to  the  pile 
buildings  of  the  Stone  Age,  those  of  later  periods  not  coming 
within  the  scope  of  the  subject  treated  in  these  pages.  Lacus- 
trine dwellings  were  built  in  shallow  places,  and  in  no  case  very 
far  from  the  shore,  simply  because  the  greater  depth  of  the  water 
farther  in  the  lake  rendered  the  erection  of  those  structures  dif 
ficult,  if  not  impossible.  The  upright  piles  were  mostly  whole 
stems  of  trees  growing  in  the  neighborhood  (oak,  beech,  fir,  pine, 
ash,  or  birch),  usually  from  four  to  eight  inches  in  diameter,  and 
sharpened  at  the  lower  end  either  by  fire  or  the  stone  hatchet. 
Heavy  wooden  mallets,  a  number  of  which  have  been  found, 
doubtless  served  to  drive  them  into  the  bottom  of  the  lake.    The 


*  Author  of  an  excellent  work  on  the  lacustrine  constructions  of  the  Lake 
of  Neuchatel. 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  119 

piles  were  evidently  placed  according  to  a  regularly  arranged 
plan,  but  in  most  cases  it  is  impossible  to  make  out  the  order 
of  their  distribution.  "They  appear  above  the  lake  bottom," 
says  Keller,  "  like  the  remains  of  a  forest  snapped  off  by  a  storm 
or  destroyed  by  an  avalanche."  Upon  these  piles,  brought  to 
a  level  several  feet  above  the  water,  and  strengthened  by  cross- 
timbers,  rested  the  platform,  often  merely  composed  of  unbarked 
stems  lying  parallel  one  to  another,  but  sometimes  consisting  of 
boards  two  inches  thick,  which  were  fastened  with  wooden  pegs 
into  the  frame -work,  thus  forming  an  even  and  solid  floor.  The 
number  of  piles,  of  course,  varied  according  to  the  extent  of  the 
settlements,  some  of  which  may  have  been  enlarged  from  time 
to  time,  when  the  increasing  population  rendered  the  erection 
of  new  hut^  necessary.  The  lacustrine  colony  near  the  German 
village  of  Wangen,  on  the  Untersee,  the  north-western  expanse 
of  the  Lake  of  Constance,  contained  from  forty  to  fifty  thousand 
posts,  and  formed  a  parallelogram  seven  hundred  paces  long 
and  one  hundred  and  twenty  broad;  but  in  other  lake  villages 
— at  Kobenhausen,  for  instance — probably  twice  as  many  piles 
were  required.  When  the  bottom  of  the  lake  was  rocky,  or  af- 
forded no  sufficient  hold  to  the  stakes,  stones  were  heaped  up 
between  and  around  them,  in  order  to  consolidate  the  erection. 
These  stones  had  to  be  brought  in  boats,  consisting  of  hollowed 
trees,  to  the  designed  spot ;  indeed,  a  boat  filled  with  stones  is 
still  to  be  seen  near  St.  Peter's  Island  in  the  Lake  of  Bienne, 
where  it  sunk  to  the  bottom,  perhaps  in  consequence  of  being 
overloaded.  The  outer  rows  of  piles  were  sometimes  interwoven 
with  a  kind  of  wattle- work,  made  of  twigs,  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  the  splashing  of  the  water  under  the  platform,  or, 
perhaps,  for  protecting  the  piles  from  being  injured  by  floating 
wood.  A  narrow  bridge,  likewise  a  pile- construction,  connected 
the  settlement  with  the  shore.  Remains  of  such  bridges,  from 
twenty  to  several  hundred  feet  long,  actually  have  been  discov- 


120  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

ered.  The  huts  erected  on  the  platforms,  it  has  been  ascertained, 
were  mostly  of  a  rectangular  shape,  and  consisted  of  a  wooden 
frame- work  wattled  with  rods  or  twigs,  and  covered  both  inside 
and  outside  with  a  bed  of  clay  from  two  to  three  inches  thick.* 
The  roofs,  as  it  seems,  were  made  of  bark,  straw,  or  rushes,  the 
remains  of  which  often  have  been  found  in  a  carbonized  state. 
A  plaster  of  clay  mixed  with  gravel  was  spread  on  the  floor  of 
the  hut  to  fill  the  chinks,  and  a  rude  hearth,  composed  of  several 
slabs  of  sandstone,  occupied  the  middle  of  each  cabin.  Some 
of  the  buildings  were  of  comparatively  large  dimensions,  meas- 
uring twenty -seven  by  fifteen  or  more  feet,  though  apparently 
forming  only  one  room,  above  which  there  may  have  been  a 
garret.  Their  size  has  been  ascertained  by  the  presence  of  sin- 
gle planks  standing  on  edge,  which  inclosed  the  floor,  doubtless 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  off  the  wet.  The  cabins  probably 
stood  in  rows  close  together,  considering  that  space  must  have 
been  much  valued  on  account  of  the  great  labor  which  the  con- 
struction of  the  platforms  required. 

Some  dwellings  were  not  erected  on  piles,  but  on  a  kind  of 
fascine- work  formed  by  layers  of  sticks  and  stems  of  trees,  stones, 
and  loam,  built  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  lake  until  the  foun- 
dation was  high  enough  to  receive  the  platform.  Many  upright 
piles  are  found  in  these  substructures,  but  they  only  served  to 
give  them  steadiness.  The  fascine-dwellings  occur  in  small  lakes, 
not  being  suitable  for  large  ones,  where  they  would  have  been 
liable  to  injury  by  the  waves  during  violent  storms. f 

During  the  long  occupation  of  the  lacustrine  villages  many 
objects,  no  doubt,  fell  accidentally  into  the  water;  while  immense 

*  The  upright  timbers  of  the  huts,  it  appears,  consisted  of  long  piles  pro- 
jecting above  the  level  of  the  platform.  Hence  it  would  follow  that  a  vil- 
lage was  laid  out  in  "  lots  "  at  the  outset  according  to  a  preconceived  plan. 

f  These  fascine-works  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  Irish  crannoges  de* 
scribed  by  Sir  W.  R.  Wilde. 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  121 

quantities  of  refuse,  such  as  the  bones  of  the  consumed  animals 
and  broken  clay  vessels,  were  intentionally  thrown  over  the  plat- 
forms, and,  as  we  may  assume,  through  the  interstices  of  the  stems 
or  planks  forming  them.  These  heterogeneous  accumulations  of 
things  became  imbedded  in  the  mud,  forming  what  are  now — 
ages  afterward  —  called  the  archaeological  strata  or  relic -beds, 
upon  which  for  the  last  twenty  years  the  dredging  implements 
of  antiquaries  have  operated,  and  brought  to  light  the  evidences 
of  a  most  curious  long-forgotten  phase  of  human  existence.  In  a 
number  of  cases  the  bulk  of  these  relic-beds  has  been  swelled  by 
the  ruin  of  the  villages  themselves,  some  of  which,  there  can  be 
no  doubt,  were  consumed  by  fire.  These  conflagrations  can  not 
have  taken  place  in  consequence  of  hostile  attacks,  because  hu- 
man skeletons  are  exceedingly  scarce  in  the  pile-works,  and  there- 
fore must  be  ascribed  to  accidental  ignitions,  which  were  likely 
to  befall  wooden  straw-roofed  huts,  each  of  them  provided  with 
an  open  hearth,  probably  blazing  most  of  the  time.  When  such 
calamities  happened,  many  articles  fell  into  the  water  in  a  char- 
red state,  and  were  preserved  to  our  days,  owing  to  the  almost 
indestructible  nature  of  carbonized  substances.  Several  Swiss 
lakes  have  much  decreased  in  extent,  and  their  ancient  shores  are 
fringed  with  formations  of  peat,  which  now  inclose  in  some  in- 
stances the  remains  of  lacustrine  villages  formerly  surrounded  by 
water.  Such  is  the  case  at  Moosseedorf,  near  Berne,  at  Wauwyl, 
in  the  canton  of  Lucerne,  and  at  Robenhausen,  on  Lake  Pfaffikon, 
where  the  owner  of  the  celebrated  pile- work,  Mr.  Jacob  Messi- 
kommer,  has  been  successfully  engaged  for  years  in  extracting 
relics  of  the  early  lacustrine  period  from  peat  and  moor  ground. 

The  builders  of  the  pile- works,  it  must  be  admitted,  were  an 
intelligent  and  industrious  people,  who  applied  to  the  utmost  the 
scanty  means  which  their  primitive  state  of  civilization  offered 
them.  They  pursued  hunting  and  fishing,  but  devoted  them- 
selves also  to  agriculture  and  the  raising  of  cattle;  they  were 


122 


EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 
3  4. 


LACDSTRINE   RELICS   OF   STONE,  HORN,  AND   BONE.* 

1,  2,  3.  Flint  arrow-heads.  4,  5.  Flint  saws  in  wooden  handles  (Meilen  and  Moosseedorf).  6. 
Stone  celt.  7.  Stone  chisel  in  stag  horn  socket  (Meilen).  8.  Stone  celt  in  stag  horn  socket, 
squared  for  insertion  into  a  wooden  club  (Meilen).  9.  Wooden  club  with  a  stone  celt  fixed  in 
it  (Robenhausen).  10.  Club  of  ash  wood  with  a  stag  horn  socket  and  stone  celt  (Robenhau- 
sen).  11.  Rolled  stone,  showing  the  cut  made  with  a  flint  saw.  12.  Sandstone  for  grinding 
celts  (Meilen).  13.  Drilled  stone  axe  (Meilen),  14.  Drilled  stone  axe  (Estavayer,  Lake  of 
Neuchatel).  15.  Two  grain-crushers  (Meilen).  16.  Hammer  of  stag  horn  (FiStavayer),  17. 
Hoe  (?)  of  stag  horn,  handle  added  (Robenhausen).  18,  19,  20.  Piercing  implements  of  bone 
(Meilen).     21.  Harpoon-head  of  stag  horn,  6^  inches  long  (Wauwyl). 

*  Our  drawings  of  lacustrine  I'elics  are  almost  exclusively  taken  from  a 
little  work  by  J.  Staub,  entitled  "  Die  Pfahlbauten  in  den  Schweizer-Seen,"  in 
which  the  size  of  the  delineated  objects  is  not  indicated.  The  same  drawings 
are  contained,  on  a  larger  scale,  in  the  English  translation  of  Dr.  Keller's 
work,  which  is  before  us ;  but  even  there  the  size  is  not  always  given.  The 
reader,  it  is  hoped,  will  supply  that  want  by  his  imagination. 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  123 

skillful  workers  in  stone,  horn,  bone,  and  wood,  practiced  pottery 
to  a  great  extent,  and  produced  very  creditable  tissues,  employing 
a  loom  of  simple  construction.  The  various  occupations  of  the 
lake-men,  and  the  fact  of  their  living  in  close  communities,  indi- 
cate no  small  degree  of  social  order,  which  necessitated  the  sub- 
mission to  the  decrees  of  chiefs  or  a  majority  of  the  people. 
These  lake-dwellers  certainly  were  in  all  respects  above  the  rude 
prehistoric  populations  thus  far  introduced  to  the  reader.  Let. 
us  now  throw  a  hasty  glance  at  their  manufactures. 

Articles  of  flint  can  not  be  said  to  abound  in  the  pile- works, 
for  the  reason  that  this  material  is  found  sparingly  in  Switzerland, 
where  it  occurs,  moreover,  only  in  small  masses  not  fit  to  be  made 
into  large  implements  like  those  found  in  Denmark  and  other 
Northern  countries.  The  flint  used  by  the  lake -men  came  from 
the  Swiss  Jura,  from  France  and  Germany,  and  thus  probably  pos- 
sessed the  character  of  a  ware  which  had  to  be  obtained  by  barter. 
Yet  they  made  good  arrow  and  spear  heads,  scrapers,  saws,  and 
various  cutting  and  piercing  tools  of  this  material.  Their  arrow- 
heads are  rather  small,  usually  from  an  inch  and  a  quai'ter  to  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and  lozenge-shaped  or  triangular,  those 
of  the  latter  kind  being  often  provided  with  projections  or  stems 
at  the  base  to  facilitate  insertion  in  the  shaft.  Some  are  slightly 
barbed.  Flint  saws,  mostly  two  or  three  inches  long,  occur  more 
frequently,  because  these  implements  were  indispensable  in  the 
preparation  of  articles  of  wood,  horn,  and  bone,  and  even  of  stone 
tools,  as  will  be  seen.  Some  of  the  saws  still  retain  their  wooden 
handles,  into  which  they  were  cemented  with  asphaltum,  a  sub- 
stance also  employed  for  fastening  arrow-heads  in  their  shafts. 
"We  give  drawings  of  two  handled  saws,  remarking,  however,  that 
the  real  objects  are  not  so  regularly  serrated  as  the  illustrations 
indicate.  The  artist,  knowing  that  he  was  representing  saws, 
drew  a  little  on  his  imagination.  The  principal  implements  of 
the  lake- men  were  the  ground  celts  or  wedge-shaped  hatchets. 


124  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

not  made  of  flint,  but  of  serpentine,  diorite,  syenite,  and  other 
kinds  of  stone  possessing  a  sufficient  degree  of  toughness.  Large 
numbers  of  these  implements  have  been  found  in  the  settlements 
of  the  Stone  Age,  and  they  are  not  wanting  in  those  of  later 
times,  when  bronze  was  already  in  use.  They  vary  in  length 
from  one  inch  to  eight  inches,  and  doubtless  served,  according  to 
their  size  and  weight,  for  many  purposes — as  weapons  of  war  and 
the  chase,  for  cutting  wood,  horn,  and  bone,  dismembering  and 
skinning  animals,  and  in  various  other  ways.  Many  of  them 
may  have  been  used  immediately  with  the  hand;  but  others, 
which  represented  small  chisels  and  cutting  tools,  were  set  in 
pieces  of  deer  horn,  hollowed  on  one  side  to  receive  the  stone 
blade,  which,  being  thus  hafted,  could  be  handled  with  greater 
convenience.  A  few  complete  axes,  blade  and  shaft  united,  have 
been  found,  two  of  them  at  Robenhausen,  representations  of 
which  are  given.  One  of  these  weapons  shows  the  stone  blade 
directly  inserted  into  the  thick  end  of  a  wooden  club ;  the  other 
consists  of  a  blade  held  by  a  socket  of  stag  horn,  which  is  work- 
ed into  a  square  form  at  the  upper  end,  to  fit  into  a  correspond- 
ing cavity  of  the  wooden  shaft.  Such  weapons  resemble  much 
the  war-clubs,  or  casse-tetes,  of  the  North  American  Indians.  The 
squared  sockets  of  deer  horn  occur  in  great  number  in  some  of 
the  ancient  settlements;  but  the  blades  belonging  to  them  are 
wanting  in  most  cases,  while  the  shafts  nearly  always  have  been 
consumed  by  decay.  The  manufacture  of  the  stone  celts  must 
have  required  much  time  and  patient  labor,  as  shown  by  a  num- 
ber of  commenced  or  more  or  less  finished  specimens,  which  il- 
lustrate the  work  in  its  various  stages  of  progress.  After  having 
chosen  a  rolled  stone  of  the  proper  kind  and  size,  the  workman 
cut  a  groove  across  it,  sometimes  half  an  inch  in  depth,  by  means 
of  a  flint  saw  applied  with  sand  and  water,  after  which  he  split 
the  stone  into  two  pieces,  each  furnishing  the  material  for  a  celt, 
provided  the  crack  had  gone  in  the  right  direction.     If  no  further 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  125 

sawing  was  required,  these  pieces  probably  were  rough -hewn 
with  another  stone,  and  afterward  ground  into  the  proper  shape 
on  a  slab  of  hard  sandstone.  The  polishing  and  grinding  of  the 
cutting  edges  were  done  on  a  still  harder  stone. 

At  Meilen  and  other  lacustrine  stations  there  have  been  met 
celts  apparently  made  of  nephrite,  a  kind  of  hard  green  stone  not 
known  to  occur  in  Europe,  but  found  in  Egypt,  in  China  and  other 
pai"ts  of  Asia.  These  implements  are  supposed  by  some  to  have 
been  introduced  by  way  of  barter  from  those  remote  regions, 
while  others  incline  to  the  opinion  that  the  material  of  which 
they  consist  was  obtained  from  nearer  localities  yet  to  be  discov- 
ered. A  sort  of  trade  or  traffic  doubtless  existed  in  Europe  in 
the  earliest  times ;  but  it  remains  doubtful  for  the  present  wheth- 
er the  lake-dwellers  of  Switzerland  were  thus  provided  with  celts 
of  nephrite  from  distant  countries.  Those  who  ascribe  the  lacus- 
trine settlements  to  new-comers  from  abroad  conjecture  that  they 
imported  these  implements,  or  the  material  of  which  they  are 
made.  Various  lake -villages  of  the  Stone  Age  have  furnished 
well-shaped  stone  axes  pierced  for  the  insertion  of  handles.  We 
give  drawings  of  two  specimens,  one  of  them  provided  with  a  han- 
dle, which,  we  are  bound  to  state,  is  an  addition  of  the  artist,  who 
wanted  to  restore  the  implement  to  its  original  complete  state. 
Among  other  lacustrine  articles  of  stone  are  to  be  mentioned 
hammers  of  a  cubical  form  with  rounded  edges,  and  grain-crushers 
about  the  size  of  a  fist,  and  worked  into  the  shape  of  an  orange 
or  a  ball,  with  depressions  on  four  sides.  These  grain -crushers 
were  used  in  connection  with  other  flat  or  more  or  less  concave 
stones. 

Most  varied  were  the  uses  which  the  lake-men  made  of  the 
horns,  bones,  and  teeth  of  animals.  The  horns  of  the  stag  were 
made  into  the  celt  sockets  already  described ;  stout  pieces  of  this 
material,  perforated  with  holes  for  holding  wooden  handles,  served, 
according  to  the  manner  in  which  their  ends  were  fashioned,  as 


126  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

hammers,  hatchets,  or  hoes;  and  the  antler  was  sometimes  con- 
verted into  a  club  by  the  removal  of 
the  prongs,  excepting  that  near  the 
brow.  Such  an  implement  resembled 
a  pick,  and  could  be  used  with  great  effect  either 
as  a  weapon  or  a  hoe.*  Bones  furnished  the  ma- 
terial for  arrow  and  spear  heads,  poniards,  chisels, 
scrapers,  piercers,  needles  with  or  without  eyes, 
fishing  implements,  and  various  other  kinds  of  tools. 
The  teeth  of  the  bear  and  the  tusks  of  the  wild 
boar  were  utilized  for  similar  purposes,  the  latter, 
for  instance,  to  serve  as  cutting  or  scraping  tools 
after  their  inner  curve  had  been  ground  to  an  edge. 
Though  most  of  the  wooden  articles  have  per- 
picK-sHAPED  m-  ished  in  consequence  of  decay,  many  of  them  that 

PLEMENT         OF  .  T  -n  • 

STAG  HORN  (20  have  been  preserved  in  water  and  peat  still  remain 
to  show  how  extensively  wood  was  employed  by  the 
lake-dwellers.  They  consist  of  handles  and  shafts  for 
implements,  maces  resembling  that  with  which  Hercules  usually 
is  represented,  mallets,  bows,  threshing-flails,  ladles,  dippers,  bowls, 
tubs,  and  boats  made  of  a  single  trunk,  besides  knife-shaped  tools, 
floats  for  nets,  combs,  and  some  other  articles  of  unknown  use.f 
The  hollowing  of  bowls,  tubs,  and  boats,  undoubtedly,  was  chiefly 
done  by  means  of  fire ;  while  the  stone  tools,  the  marks  of  which 
are  still  visible,  served  for  removing  the  charred  portions.  In 
this  manner  the  aborigines  of  North  America  hollowed  their 
canoes  and  wooden  mortars.     Mr.  Messikommer  found  at  Roben- 


*  Professor  Desor  has  in  his  collection  a  skull  pierced  with  a  round  hole 
in  the  hinder  part  of  the  left  parietal,  which,  he  thinks,  may  well  have  been 
made  with  a  club  of  this  description. 

f  We  should  have  added  primitive  "  racks  "  for  suspending  utensils,  ap- 
parel, etc.,  formed  of  young  trees  from  which  the  branches  are  cut  oflf  at  some 
distance  from  their  junction  with  the  stem. 


INCHES  long). 
—  LAKE  OF 

neuchItel. 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS. 


12t 


hausen  a  boat  with  rounded  ends,  twelve  feet  long,  two  and  a 
half  feet  wide,  and  five  inches  deep.  A  number  of  such  lacus- 
trine "dug-outs,"  some  of  them  much  larger  than  that  just  men- 
tioned, are  still  in  existence,  and  similar  ones  are  even  now  occa- 
sionally to  be  seen  on  the  lakes  of  Eastern  Switzerland. 


LACUSTRINE   MANUFACTURES    OF   WOOD   AND   CLAY. 

1.  Upper  portion  of  a  pile,  cut  out  for  receiving  a  cross-beam  (Robenhausen).  2.  Mallet  of  oak 
wood  (Niederwyl).  3,  4,  5.  Domestic  utensils  of  maple  wood  (Robenhausen).  6.  Bowl  of  oak 
wood,  showing  the  marks  of  the  stone  hatchet  (Robenhausen).  7,  8.  Knife -shaped  imple- 
ments of  yew  wood  (Robenhausen  and  Wauwyl).  9.  Comb  of  yew  wood  (MoosseedorQ.  10, 
11,  12, 13.  Pottery  (Robenhausen  and  Meilen). 

The  domestic  wooden  utensils  of  the  lake -dwellers  much  re- 
semble corresponding  objects  manufactured  at  the  present  day,  as 
the  reader  will  perceive  by  examining  our  illustrations.  That 
pottery  was  extensively  made  even  in  the  lake -settlements  of 
earliest  date,  is  proved  by  the  great  number  of  sherds  scattered 
over  their  sites.  Entire  vessels,  it  may  be  imagined,  are  rarely 
met ;  but  the  curve  and  shape  of  the  fragments  often  suffice  for 
determining  their  original  forms.  The  material  is  mostly  unpuri- 
fied  clay  mixed  with  coarse  gravel,  pounded  granite,  or  charcoal ; 
and  the  vessels  are  all  hand-made,  of  rude  appearance,  and  slight- 
ly baked,  probably  in  an  open  fire.     Notwithstanding  these  im- 


128  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

perfections,  attempts  at  decoration  are  not  wanting,  some  of  the 
vessels  being  encircled  by  knobs  below  the  rim,  or  showing  rows 
of  impressions  made  with  the  finger  or  some  blunt  tool.  In  oth- 
er cases  lines  are  traced  either  with  an  implement  or  by  pressing 
a  cord  on  the  soft  clay.  Most  of  the  pottery  has  a  blackish  ap- 
pearance, perhaps  owing  to  a  coating  with  graphite.*  There  is 
evidence  that  vessels  of  large  size  were  used  for  storing  grain,  ap- 
ples, and  other  provisions.  We  give  drawings  of  four  clay  vessels 
from  Kobenhausen  and  Meilen,  which  will  convey  some  idea  of 
early  lacustrine  pottery. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that,  in  consequence  of  the  destruction 
of  certain  lake- villages  by  fire,  many  objects  fell  into  the  water  in 
a  charred  state,  and  were  preserved  to  our  days  in  consequence  of 
their  carbonization.  Not  the  least  interesting  among  these  speci- 
mens are  the  twisted,  plaited,  and  woven  manufactures  which 
were  found  at  various  stations,  but  especially  at  Robenhausen 
and  Wangen.  A  kind  of  short  flax  was  cultivated  by  the  lake- 
men,  and  used  most  extensively  in  the  fabrication  not  only  of 
thread,  cordage,  and  nets  for  fishing,  and  probably  for  hunting, 
but  also  of  different  sorts  of  linen  cloth,  some  with  inwoven 
patterns,  a  fact  proving  that  they  employed  some  kind  of  loom.f 
Mr.  Paur,  of  Zurich,  a  manufacturer  of  ribbon,  has  constructed  a 
loom  supposed  to  resemble  that  of  the  lake-dwellers,  by  which  he 
is  able  to  reproduce  their  different  kinds  of  textile  fabrics.  We 
give  a  drawing  of  this  restored  loom,  yet  without  deeming  it  im- 
probable that  an  apparatus  of  simpler  construction  was  employed 

*  There  are  in  the  writer's  collection  many  fragments  of  lacustrine  pot- 
tery, and  some  entire  vessels,  which  the  most  practiced  eye  can  hardly  dis- 
tinguish from  the  ceramic  productions  of  the  North  American  Indians.  Ma- 
terial, shape,  and  ornamentation  are  almost  identical, 

f  The  writer  has  among  his  lacustrine  relics  flax  in  the  shape  of  seed-pods, 
seeds,  fibres  and  tow,  and  further  thread,  strings,  and  numerous  plaited  and 
woven  fabrics,  all  found  at  Robenhausen.  Hemp,  it  appears,  was  not  grown 
during  the  lacustrine  period. 


WOVEN  AN©  PLAITED   FABRICS   OF  THE   LAKE-HEN. 


1.  Restored  lacnstrine  loom.  2.  Spindle-whorl  of  sandstone  (half  size :  Auvemier,  Lake  of  Neu- 
ch4tel).  3,  4.  Tissues  of  flax-  6.  Compact  cloth,  undecided  whether  plaited  or  woven,  6. 
Mat  of  bast.  7.  Mat  of  flax  strands.  8.  Mat  of  willow  twigs  and  straw.  The  woven  and 
plaited  articles  here  figured  w^ere  obtained  at  Robenhausen  and  Wangen. 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  131 

by  the  lake -men.*  Conical  objects  of  clay,  thought  to  have 
served  as  stretchers  in  the  process  of  weaving,  often  occur ;  and 
numerous  spindle- whorls,  either  of  stone  or  of  clay,  are  indicative 
of  the  common  practice  of  spinning.f  The  lake-people  doubtless 
dresged  to  a  great  extent  in  woven  garments,  but  we  may  assume 
that  they  also  employed  the  prepared  skins  of  animals  for  this 
purpose;  indeed,  fragments  of  leather  have  been  found,  though 
sparingly,  at  Robenhausen. 

During  the  early  lacustrine  period,  hunting  still  furnished  in 
no  small  degree  the  means  of  subsistence,  as  shown  by  the  large 
number  of  bones  of  wild  animals  found  on  the  sites  of  the  ancient 
lake  villages.  Professor  Riitimeyer,  of  Basle,  has  carefully  inves- 
tigated the  fauna  of  those  times,  which,  on  the  whole,  corresponds 
with  that  of  our  days,  though  certain  species  of  animals  now  no 
longer  to  be  found  in  Switzerland  then  flourished  in  that  coun- 
try. The  urus  and  aurochs,  or  bison,  were  hunted  by  the  lake- 
men,  or  perhaps  caught  by  them  in  pitfalls.  The  elk,  an  animal 
not  known  to  have  lived  in  Switzerland  during  historical  times, 
still  roamed  through  the  woods;  but  the  reindeer  had  migrated 
to  the  north  in  search  of  a  colder  climate,  no  remains  of  it  hav- 
ing been  discovered  in  any  of  the  pile-works.  It  is  hardly  nec- 
essary to  repeat  that  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros,  cave -bear,  lion, 
and  hyena  had  accomplished  their  term  of  existence  long  before 
the  lacustrine  era.  The  stag  and  wild  boar,  both  no  longer  living 
in  Switzerland,  were  much  hunted  by  the  lake-dwellers,  and  their 
bones  indicate  animals  of  very  large  size.     Another  species  of 

*  The  Pima  Indians  of  the  Gila  River,  for  instance,  make  very  good  and 
really  ornamental  tissues,  employing  a  loom  that  consists  only  of  a  few  sticks, 
which  they  carry  about  in  a  small  bundle.  The  loom  of  the  ancient  Mexi- 
cans was  far  less  complicated  than  that  constructed  by  Mr.  Paur,  and  yet  the 
inhabitants  wove  cotton  cloth  which  excited  the  admiration  of  the  Spanish 
conquerors. 

f  Spindle- whorls  of  clay  belong  more  particularly  to  the  lacustrine  sta- 
tions of  the  Bronze  Age. 


132  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

wild  hog,  differing  from  the  wild  boar  proper,  and  called  the 
"  marsh  hog "  by  Kiitimeyer,  is  represented  by  numerous  remains 
in  the  pile- works.  Bones  of  the  roe- deer  are  far  less  abundant 
than  those  of  the  stag.  Among  the  carnivores  may  be  mention- 
ed the  brown  bear,  wolf,  and  fox,  the  last-named  of  w^hich  occurs 
frequently  in  the  settlements  of  the  Stone  Age,  and  was  eaten  by 
the  lake-men :  a  fact  proved  by  the  condition  of  its  bones,  which 
are  broken,  and  exhibit  the  marks  of  stone  instruments,  like  those 
of  the  other  animals  serving  as  food.  The  hare,  it  seems,  formed 
no  article  of  diet  among  these  people,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  same 
prejudice  which  caused,  as  we  have  seen,  the  men  of  the  Danish 
Kjokkenmoddings  to  abstain  from  its  flesh.  The  lake -dwellers 
possessed  a  species  of  domestic  dog  of  middle  size,  which  they 
seem  to  have  much  valued,  if  the  fact  that  it  was  not  used  as 
food,  unless  in  cases  of  extreme  need,  warrants  such  a  conclusion. 
The  bones  and  skulls  of  these  faithfuL  companions  of  man  are 
generally  not  broken,  like  those  of  other  animals,  but  nearly  al- 
ways occur  in  an  entire  state  in  the  lacustrine  accumulations. 
Remains  of  the  horse  are  exceedingly  scarce  in  the  settlements  of 
the  Stone  Age :  but  two  kinds  of  tame  cattle  were  common  dur- 
ing that  period,  one  of  them  small,  and  called  the  "  marsh  cow  " 
by  Professor  Riitimeyer ;  the  second  species,  of  larger  size,  is  sup- 
posed by  this  author  to  have  descended  from  the  urus.  The  oth- 
er domesticated  animals  were  goats  and  sheep,  and,  during  the 
later  division  of  the  lacustrine  Stone  Age,  two  kinds  of  hogs,  de- 
rived, according  to  Riitimeyer,  from  the  wild  species  already  men- 
tioned. It  has  been  ascertained  beyond  doubt  that  the  tamed 
animals  were  brought  for  shelter  to  the  lake  villages,  where  they 
were  kept  in  stalls  distributed  between  the  huts.  No  traces  of 
domestic  fowl  have  been  discovered  in  the  lake  settlements ;  nor 
of  the  cat,  which,  moreover,  could  easily  be  dispensed  with,  since 
those  people,  as  it  seems,  were  not  plagued  by  rats  and  mice :  the 
only  bone  of  a  mouse  thus  far  found  belongs  to  a  wild  species 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  133 

that  never  enters  the  dwellings  of  man.*  The  birds,  amphibians, 
and  fishes  which  have  left  their  traces  in  the  deposits  around  the 
piles  pertain  to  the  present  fauna  of  Switzerland,  and  therefore 
need  not  be  specialized.  That  wild  ducks,  geese,  swans,  water- 
hens,  grouse,  and  other  species  of  the  feathered  tribe  were  objects 
of  hunting,  is  demonstrated  by  their  discovered  remains.  The 
lake-people  evidently  practiced  fishing  with  good  success.  They 
caught  the  various  kinds  of  fish  abounding  in  their  lakes,  espe- 
cially pike  of  large  size,  either  in  nets,  remains  of  which  have 
been  found  at  several  stations,  or  with  the  line ;  and  it  is  proba- 
ble, too,  that  the  methods  of  shooting  and  spearing  fish  were  in 
vogue  among  them.  There  have  been  found  fish-hooks  made  of 
boars'  tusks,  and  other  implements  consisting  of  small  rods  of 
bone,  pointed  at  both  ends  and  notched  in  the  middle  for  the  at- 
tachment of  a  fishing-line.  When  these  pointed  rods  were  bait- 
ed and  swallowed,  they  could  not  easily  be  disgorged  by  the 
fish,  which  thus  became  the  prey  of  man.  According  to  Keller, 
this  primitive  device  is  still  resorted  to  in  Switzerland  for  catch- 
ing wild  ducks. 

Owing  to  causes  known  to  the  reader,  carbonized  vegetable 
remains  have  been  preserved  in  great  abundance  and  variety,  to 
assist,  as  it  were,  in  elucidating  the  mode  of  life  of  those  ancient 
lake-villagers.  They  undoubtedly  raised  barley,  wheat,  and  mil- 
let, several  kinds  of  each  of  these  cereals  having  been  found  in 
the  lacustrine  deposits.  Some  of  these  species  of  grain  were  cul- 
tivated in  Egypt,  and  therefore  are  believed  to  have  found  their 
way  from  that  country  to  Switzerland.  Eye  was  not  known  to 
the  colonists,  and  oats  not  before  bronze  had  come  into  use.  Bar- 
ley and  wheat  appear  either  in  grains,  sometimes  in  considerable 
quantities,  or,  more  rarely,  still  retain  the  shape  of  ears ;  and  even 


*  If  certain  records  are  to  be  credited,  the  domestic  cat  of  Europe  was 
introduced  from  Egypt  about  a  thousand  years  ago. 


134  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

carbonized  wheat  bread,  in  which  the  bran  and  the  imperfectly 
crushed  grains  can  be  distinctly  seen,  has  been  found  at  Roben- 
hausen  and  Wangen.  This  unleavened  prehistoric  bread,  which 
is  very  coarse  and  compact,  occurs  mostly  in  fragments,  but  some- 
times in  the  form  of  small  roundish  cakes  about  an  inch  or  an 
inch  and  a  half  thick,  and  was  doubtless  baked  by  placing  the 
dough  on  hot  stones,  and  covering  it  over  with  glowing  ashes. 
Millet  was  employed  in  a  similar  manner  for  making  bread.  It 
is  probable,  however,  that  the  lake-people  consumed  their  farina- 
ceous food  chiefly  in  the  shape  of  porridge. 

Carbonized  apples  of  small  size,  identical  with  those  growing 
wild  in  the  woods  of  Switzerland,  have  been  found  abundantly, 
and  in  a  tolerable  state  of  preservation.  Mr.  Messikommer  dis- 
covered on  one  occasion  more  than  three  hundred  of  them  lying 
close  together.  They  are  often  cut  in  halves,  more  rarely  in  three 
or  four  parts,  and  were  evidently  dried  for  consumption  during 
winter.  Whether  a  larger  kind  of  apple,  found  at  Robenhausen, 
w^as  cultivated,  or  a  wild -growing  species,  remains  undecided. 
Professor  Oswald  Heer,  of  Zurich,  who  has  published  an  interest- 
ing work  on  lacustrine  vegetable  remains,  inclines  to  the  former 
view.  Wild  pears  were  treated  in  the  same  manner;  but  they 
are  far  less  common  than  apples,  which  must  have  formed  a 
much-sought  article  of  diet.  Among  other  vegetable  remains  ac- 
cumulated in  the  lake  mud  may  be  mentioned  hazel-nuts  and 
beech-nuts,  both  in  great  plenty;  also  water- chestnuts,  which 
doubtless  were  collected  and  eaten  by  the  lake-men,  as  they  are 
in  Upper  Italy  at  this  day.  Their  present  occurrence  in  Switz- 
erland appears  to  be  restricted  to  a  tarn  in  the  canton  of  Lu- 
cerne. There  have  further  been  found  abundantly  the  stones 
of  sloes,  bird-cherries,  and  wild  plums,  and  seeds  of  the  raspber- 
ry, blackberry,  and  strawberry,  showing  that  these  fruits  of  the 
forest  were  used  as  food.  According  to  Dr.  Keller,  the  lake-col- 
onists of  the  Stone  Age  drew  their  sustenance  chiefly  from  the 


KITCHEN-MIDDENS  AND  LAKE  SETTLEMENTS.  135 

vegetable  kingdom.  Their  animal  food  evidently  was  acquired 
by  hunting  rather  than  by  the  breeding  of  cattle,  considering  that 
in  the  accumulations  around  the  piles  the  bones  of  wild  animals 
outnumber  those  of  the  domestic  species.*  Milk,  we  may  assume, 
formed  an  important  article  of  their  diet. 

A  lacustrine  village  must  have  presented  a  curious  but  not  un- 
pleasing  sight,  when,  on  a  fine  day,  the  poor  and  industrious  col- 
onists were  gathered  on  the  platform,  and  engaged  in  their  vari- 
ous occupations.  We  may  imagine  groups  of  women  busily  turn- 
ing the  spindle  and  gossiping — in  what  language  it  would  be  in- 
teresting to  know.  Other  females  are  at  work  forming  vessels 
of  clay,  to  be  burned  on  the  store,  or  perhaps  knitting  nets  or 
preparing  garments.  Lacustrine  urchins  abandon  themselves  to 
juvenile  frolics,  just  like  civilized  children,  while  here  and  there 
a  veteran,  too  old  for  fatiguing  exertions,  is  busied  in  whittling 
some  domestic  utensil  or  in  fashioning  a  weapon  for  his  son  or 


CABBONIZED  PEAB  AND  APPLES  FROM  THE  LAKE -DWELL 
INGS  (natural  size). 

grandson.  When  evening  draws  near,  smoke  begins  to  rise  from 
the  huts,  where  the  women  are  baking  and  cooking,  for  the  men 
who  have  been  hunting  in  the  woods  will  soon  return,  armed 
with  spear  and  bow,  and  loaded  with  the  game  killed  by  them. 
Those  who  have  spent  the  day  in  fishing  guide  their  boats  home- 
ward ;  field  laborers,  returning  from  the  cultivated  patches  along 
the  shore,  are  seen  to  wend  their  way  toward  the  bridge,  driving 

*  In  the  lacustrine  stations  of  the  Bronze  Age,  however,  the  remains  of 
tamed  animals  prevail,  a  fact  which  unmistakably  indicates  an  advance  in 
civilization. 


136  EABLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

before  them  the  lowing  cattle,  which  were  permitted  to  graze  on 
the  land  during  day-time,  and  are  now  to  be  stabled  for  the  night 
among  the  huts,  safe  from  the  attacks  of  wolf  and  bear. 

The  interesting  question  to  what  race  of  man  the  early  pile- 
works  are  to  be  referred  has  been  discussed,  but,  as  the  reader 
may  imagine,  without  leading  to  any  thing  like  a  result.  It  is 
not  known  in  what  manner  the  lake -colonists  disposed  of  their 
dead,  no  burial-places  having  thus  far  been  discovered  in  the 
neighborhood  of  their  settlements.  Human  remains,  moreover, 
are  very  scarce  in  the  lacustrine  relic -beds  of  the  Stone  Age, 
and  mostly  belong  to  children,  who,  it  appears,  had  perished  by 
drowning.  A  fragmentary  skull  found  at  Meilen,  and  described 
by  Professor  His,  of  Basle,  "  is  allied  to  the  cranial  forms  now 
prevalent .  in  German  Switzerland."  Notwithstanding  various 
computations,  no  one  knows  how  far  back  the  origin  of  the  lake- 
dwellings  can  be  dated.  The  presence  of  Roman  coins,  pottery, 
and  tiles  in  a  few  settlements  of  the  Iron  Age  gives  us  some  clue 
as  to  the  epoch  when  the  lacustrine  period  approached  its  termi- 
nation ;  but  we  are  absolutely  in  the  dark  in  regard  to  the  begin- 
ning and  duration  of  the  lake -colonies  belonging  to  the  earliest 
times,  during  which  the  use  of  metal  was  yet  unknown  in  Switz- 
erland. 

Our  condensed  account  relates,  as  we  stated  at  the  outset, 
only  to  the  settlements  of  the  Stone  Age.  The  gradual  introduc- 
tion of  far  more  serviceable  implements  of  bronze,  as  may  be  im- 
agined, brought  about  a  great  change  for  the  better  in  the  mode 
of  existence  of  the  lake-people,  yet  without  modifying  in  a  mark- 
ed degree  the  character  of  their  aquatic  dwellings.  Though  we 
should  like  to  follow  these  remarkable  developments,  we  must 
abstain  from  that  attempt,  and  confine  our  further  remarks  to  the 
Stone  Age  proper. 


TDMULUS   OF   THE   STONE   AGE. — ISLAND   OF   MOEN,  DENMARK. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS. 

In  the  present  closing  chapter  we  purpose  to  treat  chiefly  of 
those  productions  of  the  European  Stone  Age  which,  from  their 
perfection  and  finish,  are  illustrative  of  the  highest  mechanical 
skill  developed  during  that  remote  period,  and  consequently  in- 
clude the  types  characteristic  of  the  later  neolithic  stage  imme- 
diately antecedent  to  the  introduction  of  utensils  and  weapons  of 
bronze.  Such  stone  implements  of  superior  workmanship  are 
particularly  numerous  in  Denmark,  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
and  that  part  of  Germany  which  is  washed  by  the  Baltic  Sea; 
but  they  also  occur,  as  may  be  imagined,  more  or  less  abundantly 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  in  France,  and  the  countries  of  the 
European  continent  in  general.  The  Baltic  districts  just  men- 
tioned are  very  rich  in  flint,  and  this  circumstance  doubtless  con- 
tributed in  no  small  degree  to  the  proficiency  which  their  ancient 
inhabitants  had  acquired  in  the  art  of  fashioning  that  material. 
The  Prussian  island  of  Riigen,  for  instance,  which  abounds  in  ere- 


138  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

taceous  flint,  and  has  furnished  a  great  number  of  neolithic  imple- 
ments, must  have  been  a  manufacturing  place  of  importance  in 
ancient  times,  perhaps  a  prehistoric  Sheffield  or  Solingen  on  a 
small  scale.  In  order  to  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  the  fre- 
quency of  stone  implements  within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  Dan- 
ish kingdom,  we  will  state  that  the  celebrated  museum  of  Co- 
penhagen contained,  ten  years  ago,  exclusive  of  duplicates  and 
broken  specimens,  as  many  as  4840  articles  of  neolithic  type, 
among  them  1070  flint  axes  and  wedges,  953  chisels,  250  pon- 
iards, 656  lance-heads,  205  half- moon -shaped  implements,  746 
pierced  axes,  etc.  To  these  should  be  added  3678  rough  stone 
implements  from  the  Kjokkenmod dings  (described  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter),  and  280  objects  of  horn  and  bone.  Generally 
speaking,  the  collections  of  Denmark  are  thought  to  contain 
about  30,000  articles  of  stone,  and  nearly  every  archaeological 
museum  of  -Europe  counts  among  its  specimens  a  series  of  these 
much-sought  Danish  relics,  not  to  mention  those  in  the  hands  of 
private  individuals.  Rude  stone  tools  of  paleolithic  types,  such 
as  have  been  found  with  the  remains  of  extinct  quadrupeds  in 
the  river  gravels  and  ancient  cave  deposits  of  Western  Europe, 
appear  to  be  wanting  in  Denmark  and  the  other  Northern  coun- 
tries of  which  mention  has  been  made.  Their  absence,  if  well  es- 
tablished, would  indicate  that  these  districts  became  inhabited  at 
a  later  period,  and  by  a  race  more  advanced  than  the  barbarous 
contemporaries  of  the  mammoth. 

The  stone  implements  of  which  we  intend  to  treat  are  met 
on  or  near  the  surface  of  the  soil,  in  marshes  and  peat  bogs,  and 
quite  frequently  in  the  tombs  of  the  later  Stone  Age,  where  they 
have  been  deposited,  with  other  objects  of  use  or  ornament,  by 
the  side  of  the  departed,  as  tokens  of  the  affection  of  relatives 
and  friends,  and  probably  with  the  crude  notion  that  they  might 
be  of  service  in  a  future  state  of  existence.  Similar  funeral  cus- 
toms are  still  observed  by  the  North  American  Indians  and  other 


NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS.  139 

primitive  men  of  modern  times,  who  expect  after  death  something 
like  a  continuation  of  their  former  physical  existence,  with  all  its 
pleasant  features  and  none  of  its  cares  and  undesirable  incidents. 


DANISH  CROMLECH. 


"Weapons,  utensils,  food -vessels,  and  trinkets,  which  are  found  as- 
sociated with  human  remains  in  Indian  graves,  were  likewise 
buried,  doubtless  for  the  same  purpose,  with  the  European  of  the 
Stone  Age,  His  tomb,  however,  bore  a  more  substantial  charac- 
ter than  that  of  the  red  man,  being  composed  of  heavy  upright 
stones  and  others  placed  horizontally  to  cover  them,  the  whole 
forming  a  rude  vault  or  chamber,  which  was  often  inclosed  by  a 
tumulus  or  mound  of  earth,  and  reached  from  without  by  a  pas- 
sage also  constructed  of  stones.  These  chambers  are  sometimes 
of  large  dimensions,  and  the  stones  forming  them  of  such  bulk 
and  weight  that  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  by  what  means  they 
were  transported  and  placed  in  their  proper  position  by  men  of 
very  primitive  attainments,  who  can  be  credited  with  but  little 
knowledge  of  mechanics.  The  larger  chambers  served  as  the  last 
abodes  to  a  number  of  human  beings,  probably  belonging  to  one 
family,  and  the  corpses,  in  order  to  occupy  as  little  space  as  possi- 
ble, usually  were  deposited  in  a  sitting  or  contracted  posture,  sur- 
rounded by  the  objects  which  their  kindred  had  deemed  proper 
to  bury  with  them.     Several  classes  of  stone  graves  are  ascribed 


140  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

to  the  epocli  under  notice;  but  we  are  compelled,  for  the  sake 
of  brevity,  to  allude  only  in  general  terms  to  a  subject  which  in 
itself  would  furnish  ample  material  for  several  chapters.* 

Structures  composed  of  huge  boulders  or  fragments  of  rocks 
supporting  a  large  cap-stone  are  frequently  met  standing  entirely 
exposed  on  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Whether  they  were  original- 
ly all  covered  with  earth  is  a  mooted  question.  Such  megalithic 
erections  occur  under  different  names — cromlechs,  dolmens,  etc. — 
in  various  parts  of  Europe,  and  more  or  less  analogous  structures 
have  been  discovered  in  Syria  and  Northern  Africa.  Yet  they 
can  not  all  be  referred  exclusively  to  the  Stone  Age;  and  some 
may  not  mark  places  of  sepulture,  but  represent  monuments  built 
in  honor  of  distinguished  individuals  or  in  commemoration  of  im- 
portant events.f 

During  the  Bronze  Age  the  practice  of  burning  the  dead  was 
prevalent,  in  consequence  of  which  the  funeral  monuments  appear 
modified  in  their  character,  generally  presenting  the  shape  of 
tumuli  inclosing  earthen  vessels  or  urns,  which  contain  burned 
human  bones,  and  often  weapons  and  ornaments  of  bronze.  But 
the  mode  of  sepulture  alone  affords  not  always  a  sure  guidance 
in  determining  to  what  age  the  burial  is  to  be  referred,  consider- 
ing that  the  two  epochs  are  not  separated  by  a  strongly  defined 
line,  but  by  a  period  of  transition  which  may  have  been  of  very 
long  duration  in  certain  districts,  giving  rise  to  a  merging  of  fu- 
neral customs  that  renders  classification  difiScult.  In  the  prehis- 
toric Age  of  Iron,  again,  inhumation  seems  to  have  been  the  most 
common  method  of  burial,  the  bodies  being  laid  down  extended 
at  full  length,  contrary  to  the  rule  of  depositing  them  in  a  con- 

*  The  few  observations  thus  far  made,  it  should  be  understood,  relate 
more  particularly  to  tombs  still  existing  in  Denmark  and  the  neighboring 
countries. 

f  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  funeral  monuments  of  a  kindred  character 
are  still  erected  by  certain  tribes  in  India. 


NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS. 


141 


DANISH   FLINT   TOOLS. 

1.  Flake  (natural  size).     2.  Serrated  implement  (half  size). 

tracted  posture,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  obtained  during  the  Age 
of  Stone. 

In  entering  upon  the  subject  of  neolithic  implements,  we  be- 
gin with  the  simplest  form,  which  is  a  flake  struck  off  from  a 
block  of  flint.  Such  flakes,  as  the  reader  knows,  were  extensive- 
ly used  during  paleolithic  times  in  various  ways,  but  especially, 
it  may  be  assumed,  as  cutting  tools,  their  sharp  edges  fitting  them 
well  for  that  purpose.  Paleolithic  flakes,  however,  are  often  very 
rude,  while  those  of  the  period  now  under  consideration  general- 
ly exhibit  a  more  regular  shape,  and  thus  indicate  the  improved 
skill  of  the  later  prehistoric  flint-chipper.  They  are,  owing  to  the 
conchoidal  fracture  of  flint,  more  or  less  curved  in  the  longitudi- 
nal direction,  from  two  to  six  and  more  inches  long,  but  rarely 
more  than  an  inch  broad,  and  terminate  often  in  a  point.  The 
under  face,  produced  by  the  blow  which  detached  the  flake  from 
the  block,  always  presents  a  single  fracture ;  while  the  upper  side 
shows  two  or  three  (but  seldom  more)  facets,  resulting  from  the 
preceding  removal  of  blades.  These  cutting  tools  were  probably 
provided  with  handles,  in  order  to  be  used  with  greater  efficiency. 
Prismatic  cores  or  nuclei  from  which  flakes  have  been  dislodged 
occur  frequently  in  places  where  these  primitive  knives  were 


142  EAItLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

manufactured.  Such  open-air  workshops  have  been  discovered  in 
the  island  of  Riigen  and  elsewhere.  A  few  cases  are  recorded  in 
which  flint  cores  were  found  with  the  flakes  split  off  from  them 
lying  close  by,  and  fitting  exactly  into  the  facets  upon  them.  The 
ancient  Mexicans  made  knives  absolutely  identical  in  shape  with 
those  from  Denmark  and  other  parts  of  Northern  Europe ;  but 
instead  of  flint  they  employed  for  this  purpose  obsidian — a  vol- 
canic product  that  breaks  like  flint,  and  occurs  abundantly  in 
some  parts  of  their  country.  According  to  the  early  Spanish 
chroniclers,*  the  Aztec  artisan  dislodged  the  flakes  from  the  ob- 
sidian block  by  pressure,  employing  a  large  wooden  T-shaped  im- 
plement, which  acted  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  punch,  the 
cross-piece  resting  against  the  chest;  and  a  skillful  workman, 
says  Clavigero,  in  his  "  History  of  Mexico,"  was  able  to  make  a 
hundred  of  these  knives  within  an  hour.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  fine  flint  flakes  of  the  Baltic  districts  were  produced  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  considering  that  flint  will  not  yield  to  pressure  as 
easily  as  the  more  brittle  obsidian. 

Among  the  chipped  flint  articles  of  the  European  North  we 
have  to  mention  certain  flat  implements  somewhat  resembling  in 
outline  the  segment  of  a  circle,  or  sometimes  a  half-moon.  These 
tools  have  been  classed  as  cutting  implements  and  as  saws,  their 
edges  being  occasionally  serrated,  as  in  the  given  drawing.  Sir 
John  Lubbock  thinks  it  probable  that  they  were  fixed  with  their 
convex  edges  into  wooden  handles,  and  then  used  in  cleaning 
skins.  Neolithic  scrapers  resemble  those  of  the  earlier  Stone 
Age,  though  they  are  often  more  regularly  chipped ;  but  having 
represented  scrapers,  and  alluded  to  their  uses  in  the  third  chap- 
ter of  this  volume  ("The  Troglodytes"),  we  need  not  say  more 
about  them  in  this  place. 

The  neolithic  period  is  characterized  by  a  great  variety  of 

*  Torquemada,  Motolinia. 


NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS. 


143 


chipped  flint  arrow-heads,  many  of  which  are  wrought  with  ad- 
mirable skill,  and  may  be  classed  among  the  most  remarkable 
relics  of  antiquity.  The  simpler  forms  present  the  outlines  of 
triangles,  leaves,  or  lozenges;  in  the  more  elaborate  specimens 
the  part  opposite  the  point  terminates  in  a  stem  or  tang,  which 
facilitated  the  attachment  to  the  shaft.  Some  arrow-heads  are 
both  stemmed  and  barbed ;  others  have  long  barbs,  but  no  stems. 
In  many  the  converging  edges  are  skillfully  serrated  or  jagged. 


FLINT  ABBOW- HEADS   (nATUBAL   SIZE). — GBEAT  BBITAIN  AND   DENMABK. 

A  glance  at  our  illustrations  will  be  more  instructive  than  any 
information  we  could  offer.*  These  arrow-heads  are  from  one 
to  two  or  three  inches  long;  but  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
whether  the  long  specimens  are  really  arrow-heads  or  the  points 
of  javelins,  considering  that  there  is  no  marked  difference  in  their 
respective  forms.  The  base  of  the  arrow-head,  whether  straight, 
indented,  or  stemmed,  is  generally  worked  thin,  in  order  to  fit 
into  a  slit  at  the  end  of  the  wooden  shaft,  where  it  was  secured 
by  means  of  sinews  tightly  wound  around  the  wood.  Some  sort 
of  glue  or  cement,  moreover,  may  have  been  used  to  connect  the 
stone  point  more  firmly  with  the  shaftf    The  Swiss  lake -men, 

*  The  illustrations  of  neolithic  implements  in  this  chapter  are  taken  from 
Worsaae's  "  Catalogue  of  the  Antiquities  in  the  Copenhagen  Museum,"  from 
Evans's  "Ancient  Stone  Implements,  etc.,  of  Great  Britain,"  and  from  other 
reliable  sources. 

f  The  Prairie  Indians  use  both  glue  and  sinews  for  fastening  their  arrow- 
points.     They  make  their  glue  from  the  horns  and  the  hoofs  of  the  buffalo. 


144 


EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 


it  will  be  remembered,  employed  aspbaltum  for  tbat  purpose. 
Flint  arrow-heads  evidently  were  still  used  in  Northern  Europe 
long  after  bronze  had  become  known.  In  England,  for  instance, 
bronze  arrow-heads  are  extremely  scarce,  while  arrow-heads  of 
flint  occur  frequently  in  ancient  graves  containing  weapons  and 
implements  of  bronze.  This  fact  may  be  easily  accounted  for  by 
the  costliness  of  bronze  and  the  abundance  of  flint,  a  flint-tipped 
arrow  being,  moreover,  almost  as  effective  as  one  provided  with  a 
point  of  bronze. 

There  are  some  curious  superstitions  attached  to  flint  arrow- 
heads in  various  parts  of  Europe,  as, 
for  instance,  in  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
where  the  country  people  call  them 
elf  shots  or  elf  bolts,  believing  them  to 
be  the  missiles  of  those  imaginary  be- 
ings. They  used  to  wear  them,  mount- 
ed in  silver  frames,  as  protections 
against   evil    influences.     Sir   W.  R. 

FLINT    ARKOW-HEAD    MOUNTED    IN    A     ^'J^g    g^^^^g   ^^^^    '^^    ^J^g    ^^^^^    ^f  Jj.^. 
SILVER      FRAME      (NATURAL      SIZE). 

WORN  AS  A  CHARM  IN  SCOTLAND.  Jaud,  "  whcu  Cattle  are  sick,  and  the 
cattle  doctor  or  fairy  doctor  is  sent  for,  he  says  the  beast  has  been 
'  elf-  shot,'  or  stricken  by  fairy  or  elfin  darts ;  and  forthwith  he 
proceeds  to  feel  the  animal  all  over,  and  by  some  legerdemain  con- 
trives to  find  in  its  skin  one  or  more  poisonous  weapons,  which, 
with  some  coins,  are  then  placed  in  the  water  which  it  is  given 
to  drink,  and  a  cure  is  said  to  be  effected."  According  to  Profes- 
sor Nilsson,  the  veteran  archaeologist  of  Sweden,  there  is  still  lin- 
gering among  the  Scandinavian  peasantry  a  belief  that  flint  ar- 
row-heads and  stone  implements  in  general  are  endowed  with  cer- 
tain magic  powers.  Similar  superstitions  survive  in  Italy.  In 
some  parts  of  that  country  the  peasants  preserve  flint  arrow-heads 
in  their  houses,  in  order  to  protect  them  from  the  effects  of  light- 
ning; and  in  the  island  of  Elba  they  are  mounted  in  silver  and 


NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS.  145 

worn  as  amulets,  as  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  An  arrow-head  of 
flint  has  been  found  appended  to  an  Etruscan  necklace  of  gold, 
apparently  as  a  sort  of  charm,  which  seems  to  show,  says  Mr. 
Evans,  "  that  a  belief  in  the  supernatural  origin  of  these  weapons, 
and  their  consequent  miraculous  powers,  is  of  very  ancient  date." 
In  this  country,  where  stone  arrow-points  are  probably  more  nu- 
merous than  anywhere  else,  no  strange  notions  in  reference  to 
them  are  entertained  by  the  rural  population,  their  origin  and 
use  being  so  well  understood  that  even  the  children  in  country 
districts,  who  pick  them  up  in  the  fields,  are  fully  aware  of  their 
being  the  missiles  used,  at  no  remote  period,  by  the  aboriginal  oc- 
cupants of  the  soil.  Such,  at  least,  was  the  writer's  personal  ex- 
perience. 

The  next  group  of  illustrations  represents  four  remarkably 
fine  objects  of  flint,  which  will  serve  to  show  what  degree  of  per- 
fection in  chipping  stone  had  been  attained  during  the  neolithic 
period.  The  first  of  them  is  a  sickle-shaped  knife  terminating  in 
a  handle,  all  made  of  one  piece,  and  measuring  fourteen  inches  in 
length.  This  unique  specimen,  which  is  preserved  in  the  Copen- 
hagen Museum,  can  hardly  have  been  designed  for  actual  use,  be- 
ing very  liable  to  break  on  account  of  the  brittleness  of  its  mate- 
rial, and  for  this  reason  it  may  be  assumed  that  it  served  as  an 
attribute  or  a  baton  of  command.  In  the  next  figure  we  present 
one  of  those  beautiful  Danish  daggers  which  Sir  John  Lubbock 
calls  "  marvels  of  skill  in  flint-chipping."  The  reader  will  notice 
the  elegant  outline  of  this  weapon,  and  particularly  its  elaborate- 
ly wrought  prismatic  handle.  The  third  specimen,  a  javelin-head 
derived  from  the  Isle  of  Skye,  Scotland,  and  drawn  in  natural 
size,  is  less  carefully  chipped  at  the  edges,  yet  of  very  remarkable 
shape,  its  base  being  expanded  to  strengthen  the  curved  barbs. 
The  last  figure  of  the  group  represents  again  a  Danish  weapon  of 
superior  workmanship,  which  has  been  classed  as  a  spear- head, 
though  it  is  provided  with  a  square  handle,  and  thus  resembles  a 

10 


146 


EABLY  MAN  IN  EUEOFH. 


LARGE   FLINT  WEAPONS. 

1.  Sickle-shaped  knife,  one-third  of  natural  size  (Denmark).  2.  Dagger,  one-third  of  natural  size 
(Denmark).  3.  Javelin-head,  natural  size  (Isle  of  Skye,  Scotland).  4,  Lance-head,  one-third 
of  natural  size  (Denmark). 

dagger  or  a  knife.  The  armatures  of  lances  generally  correspond 
in  shape  more  or  less  to  those  of  arrows,  and  it  is  only  their 
larger  size  which  indicates  the  use  for  which  they  were  designed. 
As  in  arrow-heads,  their  lower  end  is  often  worked  into  a  projec- 
tion or  tang  for  fitting  them  in  the  cleft  end  of  the  shaft.  Yet 
many  of  the  specimens  of  this  class  may  have  been  inserted  in 
short  handles,  and  used  as  daggers  or  cutting  tools. 

The  different  classes  of  flint  implements  thus  far  treated  are 
generally  brought  into  the  proper  shape  by  the  simple  process  of 


NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS. 


147 


chipping,  and  exhibit  only  exceptionally  traces  of  polish ;  as,  for 
instance,  some  of  the  Danish  daggers,  and  particularly  certain 
Irish  spear- heads  of  a  lozenge  shape,  which  were  first  chipped 
into  form  and  then  ground  flat  on  both  faces,  while  the  edges  re- 
mained in  their  original  state.  But  the  Danish  wedge-shaped 
axes  or  celts  of  flint,  which  next  claim  our  attention,  are  very 


POLISHED   FLINT   IMPLEMENTS  (dENMARK). 

1.  Celt,  one-third  of  natural  size.    2.  Chisel,  half  size.    3.  Gouge,  one-fourth  of  natural  size. 

often  polished,  though  perhaps  quite  as  frequently  left  in  a  chip- 
ped or  rough -hewn  state,  yet  even  then  showing  in  most  cases 
excellent  workmanship.  It  is  probable  that  many  of  the  latter 
were  not  intended  to  be  ground.  The  more  carefully  prepared 
flint  celts,  however,  are  polished  either  merely  at  the  edge,  or  on 
the  two  broad  faces,  or  on  all  sides,  and  the  edge  itself,  though  of 
tolerable  thickness,  is  usually  very  sharp  and  regularly  curved. 
They  vary  in  length  from  three  to  fifteen  inches,  and  from  one  to 


148  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

four  inches  in  breadth.  In  connection  with  the  celts  must  be 
mentioned  various  kinds  of  chisels,  with  narrow  or  broad  edges, 
and  hollow  chisels  or  gouges,  all  of  which  occur  either  chipped,  or 
partly  or  entirely  polished.  The  narrow  chisels  are  often  square 
in  the  cross  section,  and  resemble  the  cold-chisels  employed  in  our 
time.  Ground  celts  not  made  of  flint,  but  of  greenstone  and  oth- 
er hard  and  tough  materials,  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  various 
European  countries.  The  reader  will  remember  that  we  have  re- 
ferred to  them  in  the  preceding  chapter  while  speaking  of  the 
stone  implements  in  use  among  the  lake  villagers  of  Switzerland. 
These  celts  differ  somewhat  in  shape  from  the  Danish  specimens 
of  the  same  class,  being  often  roundish  or  elliptic  in  the  cross  sec- 
tion, instead  of  presenting  perpendicular  sides  like  many  of  the 
Northern  flint  celts,  and  they  often  taper  into  a  rounded  butt- 
end.  Not  few  of  them  are  worked  with  great  symmetry,  sharp- 
edged,  and  well  polished. 

Stone  celts  in  general  form  a  numerous  class  of  neolithic  rel- 
ics, and  their  frequency  is  indicative  of  the  important  part  they 
played  in  times  when  metallic  implements  were  yet  unknown. 
Their  shape,  indeed,  rendered  them  suitable  for  application  in 
various  ways.  Some  of  them  probably  were  used  with  the  hand 
as  chisels  and  knives,  or,  in  connection  with  mallets,  as  wedges 
for  splitting  wood;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  were 
fixed  into  handles  to  serve  as  hatchets  or  axes,  or  perhaps  as 
adzes.  Wood,  however,  is  a  very  perishable  substance,  and  han- 
dles with  the  stone  blades  still  inserted  in  them  are  therefore  but 
rarely  met.  A  few  hafted  hatchets  have  been  preserved,  as  the 
reader  knows,  in  the  relic -beds  of  Swiss  pile -works,  and  two  or 
three  others  were  discovered  elsewhere,  one  of  them  (here  fig- 
ured) in  the  County  of  Monaghan,  Ireland.  In  this  instance  the 
club-shaped  handle,  which  apparently  consists  of  pine -wood,  is 
thirteen  and  a  half  inches  long.  "  To  us,  accustomed  as  we  are 
to  the  use  of  metals,"  says  Lubbock,  "  it  seems  difficult  to  believe 


NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS. 


149 


that  such  things  were  ever  made  use  of;  we  know,  however,  that 
many  savages  of  the  present  day  have  no  better  tools.  Yet  with 
axes  such  as  these,  and  generally  with  the  assistance  of  fire,  they 


POLISHED    STONE   CELTS. 

1.  Greenstone  celt,  half  size  (England).     2.  Celt  in  wooden  handle  (County  of  Monaghan, Ireland). 

will  cut  down  large  trees  and  hollow  them  out  into  canoes.  The 
piles  used  in  the  Swiss  Stone  Age  lake-habitations  were  evident- 
ly, from  the  form  of  the  cuts  on  them,  prepared  with  the  help  of 
stone  axes ;  and  in  the  Danish  peat  bogs  several  trees  have  been 
found  with  the  marks  of  stone  axes  and  of  fire  upon  them,  and  in 
one  or  two  cases  stone  celts  have  even  been  found  lying  at  the 
side." 

The  most  remarkable  neolithic  axes  are  those  pierced  with  a 
hole  for  the  reception  of  a  handle,  and  thus  approaching  in  char- 


150  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

acter  corresponding  iron  implements  in  use  at  the  present  time. 
Varieties  of  greenstone  frequently  form  their  material,  though 
syenite,  basalt,  serpentine,  and  other  suitable  mineral  substances 
were  employed  for  the  same  purpose.  Pierced  axes  of  flint  hard- 
ly ever  occur,  obviously  for  the  reason  that  the  hardness  of  this 
kind  of  stone  would  have  rendered  the  drilling  process  too  diffi- 
cult. The  axe -heads  differ  much  in  size  and  shape,  and  in  the 
degree  of  skill  bestowed  on  their  execution.    Their  length  varies 


DBILLED   STONE  AXES  (ONE-FOUKTH  OF  MATUSAL  SIZE"). — DENMABK. 

from  four  to  ten  and  more  inches.  Most  of  them  are  wedge- 
shaped,  blunt  at  one  end,  and  terminating  at  the  other  in  an  edge 
placed  in  the  direction  of  the  shaft-hole ;  in  others  the  edge  forms 
a  right  angle  with  the  perforation,  and  these  partake  of  the  char- 
acter of  adzes.  Some,  again,  have  perpendicular  edges  at  both 
ends,  and  may  be  called  double  axes.  The  shaft-holes  are  either 
in  the  middle  or  nearer  the  blunt  part,  and  they  were  drilled 
after  the  stone  had  been  ground  into  the  proper  shape,  as  shown 
by  many  otherwise  finished  specimens  exhibiting  incipient  or 
partly  finished  perforations.  We  can  not  attempt  to  describe  in 
detail  the  various  shapes  of  these  implements,  and  refer  the  read- 
er to  our  illustrations,  which  will  convey  some  idea  of  their  ap- 
pearance.    Specimens  of  rude  make  may  occasionally  be  seen  in 


NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS.  151 

European  collections;  but  most  articles  of  this  class  are  well 
shaped,  and  not  few  of  them  remarkable  for  elegance  of  form  and 
exquisite  workmanship.  Drilled  axes  being  sometimes  met  in 
ancient  graves  associated  with  objects  of  bronze,  some  archaeolo- 
gists incline  to  the  opinion  that  they  are  in  general  referable  to 
the  Age  of  Bronze.  Yet  this  can  not  be  the  case,  for  though  the 
manufacture  of  these  stone  implements  probably  was  continued 
in  times  when  bronze  already  had  been  brought  into  use,  it  hard- 
ly admits  of  any  doubt  that  many  belong  to  the  Stone  Age  prop- 
er— at  any  rate,  to  its  later  stage.  We  will  only  allude  to  the 
pierced  axes  which,  as  the  reader  knows,  have  been  found  among 
the  relics  of  Swiss  lake  settlements  pertaining  to  the  Age  of 
Stone.  It  has  been  shown,  moreover,  by  experiments  made  both 
in  Europe  and  in  this  country,  that  stone  of  considerable  hard- 
ness can  be  perforated  by  means  of  a  wooden  stick  or  a  properly 
shaped  piece  of  horn  in  conjunction  with  sharp  sand  and  water.* 
The  highly  finished  axe -heads  ascribed  to  the  Bronze  Age  may 
have  been  drilled  and  fashioned  with  the  aid  of  metallic  imple- 
ments. 

The  edges  of  pierced  axes  generally  are  not  sharp,  but  more 
or  less  blunt,  and  hence  it  appears  probable  that  they  were  de- 
signed for  weapons  rather  than  for  tools  to  be  employed  in  cut- 
ting. Yet  even  as  battle-axes  they  can  not  have  been  very  effi- 
cient, considering  that  they  were  liable  to  break  across  the  shaft- 
hole  after  a  vigorous  blow;  and  though  the  manufacturers  often 
endeavored  to  obviate  such  accidents  by  increasing  the  breadth 
of  the  axe  at  the  place  of  perforation,  the  halves  of  axes  broken 
in  that  part  are  by  no  means  scarce.  The  edged  fragments,  how- 
ever, sometimes  have  been  rendered  serviceable  again  by  a  second 

^  *  The  writer  has  succeeded  in  perforating  a  piece  of  the  hardest  diorite, 
nearly  an  inch  and  a  half  in  thickness,  by  employing  a  wooden  apparatus 
shaped  like  a  pump-drill.  The  modus  operandi  is  described  in  the  Smithso- 
nian Report  for  1868. 


152 


EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 


perforation,  as  in  the  case  of  tlie  Swedish  axe  here  figured.  Many 
well-wrought  axe-heads,  on  the  other  hand,  are  in  a  perfect  state 
of  preservation,  and  exhibit  no  trace  of  use  what- 
ever ;  and  such  specimens,  it  may  be  assumed,  were 
not  applied  to  serious  purposes,  but  served  as  in- 
signia of  rank  or  weapons  of  parade.  The  real 
war- axe  of  those  times  probably  was  a  stone  celt 
firmly  set  in  a  wooden  handle. 

Before  proceeding  further,  we  must  allude  to 
the  curious  belief  among  the  uneducated  in  Europe 
that  the  stone  celts  and  axes  they  happen  to  dis- 
cover in  the  fields  have  been  hurled  down  from  the 
BROKEN  AXE  WITH  sky  by  Hghtuiug.      This  superstition,  which  now 

NEW   SHAFT-HOLE  ,  -TIT*  ,  T        ,  , 

(half    size).  —  May  nave  yielded  in  some  measure  to  a  better  un- 
SWEDEN.  derstanding,  was  but  a  short  time  ago  universal  in 

Europe ;  and  stone  celts,  as  if  by  common  consent,  were,  and  still 
are,  denominated  "thunder -bolts"  in  most  European  languages. 
By  that  name  they  are  known  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland ;  in 
French  they  are  called  coins  de  foudre  ov  pierres  de  tonnerre;  in 
German,  Donnerkeile;*  in  Dutch,  donder-heitels ;  in  Danish,  Torden- 
hiler  or  Tordensteene ;  and  corresponding  names  occur  in  the  lan- 
guages of  the  more  southern  nations  of  Europe,  all  tending  to 
show  a  common  belief  in  their  descent  from  the  clouds — a  belief 
which  was  shared,  we  must  add,  even  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  by  men  of  learning,  who  wrote  dissertations  to 
prove  that  they  were  the  projectiles  of  lightning.  Some  savants 
of  the  same  period,  on  the  other  hand,  had  recognized  their  true 
character,  and  endeavored  to  dispel  the  misconceptions  of  their 
contemporaries.     Many  are  the  virtues  which  superstition  attrib- 


*  Years  ago,  while  collecting  Indian  relics  in  the  southern  counties  of 
Illinois,  we  had  often  occasion  to  notice  that  the  German  settlers  applied  the 
name  Donnerkeile  to  the  Indian  stone  tomahawks  and  celts  plowed  up  in 
their  fields,  though  they  knew  perfectly  well  the  origin  of  these  implements. 


NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS.      '  153 

utes  to  these  stone  implements.  "When  kept  in  a  house,  they  pro- 
tect it  from  lightning ;  the  water  in  which  a  celt  has  been  boiled 
is  a  remedy  against  rheumatism;  and  sick  cattle  are  cured  by 
drinking  water  in  which  a  celt  has  been  placed.  Celts,  further, 
are  believed  to  alleviate  the  pains  of  childbirth;  the  powder 
scraped  from  them  is  of  good  effect  in  various  diseases  of  chil- 
dren, etc.  Mr.  Evans,  after  having  discussed  in  an  exhaustive 
manner  the  superstitions  connected  with  these  ancient  instru- 
ments in  Europe  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  Old  World,  con- 
cludes thus:  "There  are  two  deductions  which  may  readily  be 
drawn  from  the  facts  just  stated — first,  that  in  nearly  all,  if  not 
indeed  in  all,  parts  of  the  globe  which  are  now  civilized  there 
was  a  period  when  the  use  of  stone  implements  prevailed ;  and, 
secondly,  that  this  period  is  so  remote  that  what  were  then  the 
common  implements  of  e very-day  life  have  now  for  centuries  been 
regarded  with  superstitious  reverence,  as  of  being  in  some  sense 
of  celestial  origin,  and  not  the  work  of  man's  hands." 

Stone  hammers,  which  form  a  less  numerous  class  of  perfo- 
rated instruments,  seem  to  occur  chiefly  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  They  consist  of 
quartzite,  greenstone,  and  other  materials  of 
sufficient  hardness,  and  are  in  many  instances 
well  shaped  and  carefully  finished.  A  few 
bear  a  great  resemblance  to  certain  iron  ham- 
mers in  use  at  the  present  day,  being  broad  in 
the  perforated  part,  and  terminating  in  flat 
faces  at  both  ends.     Some  are  of  a  cylindrical  pekforated  hammer  of 

^     ^  QUARTZITE  (hALF  SIZE). 

form,  and  convex  at  both  extremities ;  others,  —England. 
again,  are  egg-shaped.  In  many  cases  a  quartzite  pebble  of  ovoid 
form  was  perforated  and  used  as  a  hammer-head  without  further 
preparation.  Among  the  drilled  objects  of  the  neolithic  period 
we  further  have  to  mention  the  stone  spindle -whorls,  or  weights 
serving  as  fly-wheels  to  impart  a  rotary  motion  to  the  spindle, 


154  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

which,  as  the  reader  knows,  was  a  utensil  employed  in  Europe 
at  an  early  time.*  The  whorls,  in  their  simplest  form,  are  disk- 
shaped,  usually  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter, 
and  pierced  in  the  centre  with  a  small  hole,  through  which  the 
pointed  spindle  of  wood  or  bone  was  stuck.  The  country  people 
in  Ireland  call  them  "  fairy  millstones."  They  are  often  made  of 
clay,  and  sometimes  of  wood,  bone,  or  ivory,  and  it  is  not  always 
easy  to  determine  to  what  period  they  belong,  since  spinning 
with  distaff  and  spindle  is  even  now  practiced  in  some  parts  of 
Europe.  In  conclusion,  we  allude  to  the  sink-stones,  which  are 
pebbles  encircled  by  a  groove  or  perforated  with  a  hole,  and  sup- 
posed to  have  served  as  weights  for  nets  or  fishing-lines ;  and  to 


SINK-STONE  AND   HAMMEB-STONE   (ONE-THIKD   OF  NATURAL   SIZE). — DENMARK. 

the  so-called  hammer-stones,  mostly  oval  quartzite  pebbles,  with 
cup-shaped  cavities  worked  into  the  two  broader  faces.  The  last- 
named  tools  were  not  attached  to  handles,  but  used  with  the 
hand  alone,  the  cavities  serving  to  receive  the  thumb  and  middle 
finger  of  the  operator. 

The  account  of  neolithic  implements  here  given  comprises  but 
their  principal  forms,  and  is  only  calculated  to  acquaint  the  read- 
er in  a  cursory  way  with  a  subject  about  which  volumes  have 
been  written  in  various  languages.  A  more  detailed  description 
would  exceed  the  proposed  limits  of  this  chapter. 

Horn  and  bone  continued  to  be  employed  during  the  later 
Stone  Age  as  materials  for  arrow-heads,  barbed  harpoons,  pier- 


*  A  drawing  of  a  spiudle-whorl  is  given  in  the  preceding  chapter  among 
the  illustrations  of  lacustrine  relics. 


NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS.  155 

cers,  hammers,  and  other  weapons  or  utensils.  They  were  found 
abundantly,  as  will  be  remembered,  on  the  sites  of  Swiss  lake  vil- 
lages, and  we  may  add  that  they  are  not  wanting  in  the  North- 
ern countries  of  Europe;  but  having  repeatedly  described  such 
implements  in  preceding  chapters,  we  deem  it  sufficient  merely 
to  allude  to  them  in  this  place. 

The  love  for  personal  adornment — common  to  man  in  what- 
ever stage  of  development  we  may  find  him — manifests  itself  in 
the  neolithic  period  by  the  presence  of  a  variety  of  objects  of  a 
decorative  character,  such  as  teeth  of  animals  and  entire  shells 
pierced  for  suspension,  and  pendants,  beads,  and  buttons  made  of 
stone,  jet,  shell -matter,  bone,  and  amber.  The  last-named  sub- 
stance seems  to  have  been  held  in  particular  estimation,  and  oc- 
curs often  in  the  shape  of  ornament  in  the  graves  of  the  North, 
where  it  could  be  easily  obtained,  owing  to  the  proximity  of 
those  coast  regions  of  the  North  Sea,  and  especially  of  the  Baltic, 
from  which  even  in  our  days  amber  is  chiefly  derived.  This 
beautiful  resinous  material  formed  a  valued  article  of  commerce 
in  very  early  times,  and  may  then  have  been  more  abundant  than 
at  present.  The  amber  ornaments  consist  either  of  un wrought 
perforated  pieces  or  of  polished  beads  of  different  forms  and  sizes, 
which  were  strung  together  to  adorn  the  necks,  and  perhaps  the 
limbs,  of  the  ancient  people.  Some  of  the  amber  beads  of  the 
North,  it  should  be  added,  represent  diminutive  axes,  hammers, 
and  celts,  exactly  shaped  like  the  corresponding  stone  imple- 
ments, and  probably  thus  fashioned  for  some  symbolic  purpose. 

Clay  vessels,  it  appears,  were  in  general  use  during  the  neo- 
lithic period.  They  have  been  met,  as  will  be  remembered,  abun- 
dantly, though  mostly  in  a  fragmentary  state,  in  the  lake  settle- 
ments of  the  Stone  Age,  and  numerous  sherds  indicative  of  the 
extent  of  their  manufacture  cover  everywhere  in  Europe  the  sites 
once  occupied  by  the  people  who  used  polished  stone  implements. 
Entire  vessels  are  sometimes  found  in  the  sepulchres  of  those 


156  EARLY  MAN  IN  EVBOPE. 

times,  where  they  have  been  placed  by  the  side  of  the  dead,  prob- 
ably for  holding  provisions  to  serve  during  their  journey  to 
another  vrorld.  The  clay  vessels  of  the  period  here  considered 
are  made  without  the  aid  of  the  potter's  wheel,*  unglazed,  and 
slightly  burned,  and  the  clay  is  often  tempered  with  sand,  small 
pebbles,  crushed  stone,  or  charcoal.  In  shape  and  capacity,  of 
course,  they  vary  according  to  the  uses  for  which  they  were  de- 
signed. There  are  rude  vessels  with  convex  bottoms,  resembling 
the  pottery  still  manufactured  by  uncultivated  races,  and  others 


ORNAMENTED   DANISH   VASE    (ONE-THIRD    OF   NATURAL   SIZE). 

of  more  developed  forms,  which  betoken  a  higher  degree  of  skill 
in  the  ceramic  art.  The  Swiss  earthenware  of  the  Stone  Age,  as 
we  have  seen,  can  not  be  much  commended  for  elegance  of  out- 
line or  high  finish;  but  some  of  the  Danish  vessels  ascribed  to 
the  neolithic  period  are  rather  gracefully  formed  and  well  made, 
like  the  vase  represented  above.     The  ornamentation  of  the  Stone 


*  This  simple  contrivance,  it  seems,  came  into  use  at  a  much  later  time, 
for  even  the  lacustrine  pottery  of  the  Bronze  Age  is  hand-made. 


NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS.  157 

Age  pottery  chiefly  consisted  in  rows  of  dots  and  in  parallel  and 
zigzag  lines,  which  were  traced  or  impressed  on  the  wet  clay. 
The  primitive  potters  hardly  ever  introduced  curved  lines,  and 
never  attempted  to  engrave  the  imitation  of  a  plant,  an  animal,  or 
any  natural  object  whatever  on  their  ware. 

Some  of  our  readers,  doubtless,  have  become  aware  that  certain 
European  stone  implements  bear  a  most  striking  resemblance  to 
corresponding  articles  of  stone  left  by  the  aborigines  of  this  coun- 
try. The  similarity,  however,  is  not  confined  to  the  manufactures 
of  Europe  and  North  America,  but  may  be  traced  all  over  the  in- 
habited globe.  The  tools  and  weapons  of  stone  exhibit  every- 
where nearly  the  same  forms,  whether  they  are  found  in  Japan  or 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  Tierra  del  Fuego  or  in  Denmark 
and  England.  Yet  such  analogies  can  not  be  a  matter  of  sur- 
prise ;  on  the  contrary,  it  would  be  strange  if  they  were  wanting, 
considering  that  the  spur  of  necessity  urged  primitive  men  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  and  in  all  ages  to  resort  to  the  simplest  means 
for  meeting  the  exigencies  of  life.  Their  inventive  powers,  im- 
pelled by  similar  motives,  necessarily  led  them  to  similar  mechan- 
ical contrivances.  "  Some  years  ago,"  says  Samuel  Smiles,  in  his 
"  Industrial  Biography,"  "  there  was  exhibited  at  the  Crystal  Pal- 
ace [England]  a  collection  of  ancient  European  weapons  and  im- 
plements placed  alongside  a  similar  collection  of  articles  brought 
from  the  South  Seas,  and  they  were  in  most  respects  so  much 
alike  that  it  was  difficult  to  believe  that  they  did  not  belong  to 
the  same  race  and  period,  instead  of  being  the  implements  of 
races  sundered  by  half  the  globe,  and  living  at  periods  several 
thousand  years  apart.  Nearly  every  weapon  in  the  one  collec- 
tion had  its  counterpart  in  the  other — the  mauls  or  celts  of  stone, 
the  spear-heads  of  flint  or  jasper,  the  arrow-heads  of  flint  or  bone, 
and  the  saws  of  jagged  stone,  showing  how  human  ingenuity,  un- 
der like  circumstances,  had  resorted  to  like  expedients."  The  re- 
semblance probably  would  have  been  greater  if  the  exhibitors, 


158  EABLT  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

instead  of  the  Soutli  Sea  manufactures,  had  placed  those  of  the 
North  American  aborigines  along-side  the  implements  fabricated 
by  the  ancient  Europeans ;  for  the  Indian  arrow  and  spear-heads, 
cutting  tools,  scrapers,  celts,  hammer-stones,  net-sinkers,  etc.,  are 
sometimes  absolutely  identical  in  shape  with  those  of  Europe, 
insomuch  that  they  can  only  be  distinguished  from  each  other  by 
the  difference  of  the  material.  This  difference  is  chiefly  perceiva- 
ble in  the  chipped  implements,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  were 
made  in  Europe,  to  a  great  extent,  of  cretaceous  flint ;  while  in 
North  America,  where  the  real  flint  does  not  seem  to  occur,  horn- 
stone,  jasper,  common  quartz,  and  other  stones  of  a  silicious  char- 
acter, formed  the  materials  of  which  the  aborigines  generally  man- 
ufactured their  darts,  scrapers,  saws,  piercers,  and  cutting  tools. 
The  ground  celts,  however,  frequently  consist  of  greenstone  both 
in  Europe  and  in  this  country,  and  they  are  so  much  alike  in 
shape  that  a  celt  found  in  New  Jersey  or  in  Missouri  might  pass 
for  an  English  or  a  German  specimen. 

The  perseverance  displayed  in  the  manufacture  of  such  stone 
implements  as  we  have  described  should  not  be  underrated.  An 
experienced  flint-chipper,  it  may  be  assumed,  was  able  to  produce 
his  ware  in  a  comparatively  short  time ;  but  the  grinding  and  pol- 
ishing of  celts  and  axes  and  the  drilling  of  the  latter  must  have 
required  an  enormous  amount  of  patient,  long -continued  labor. 
So  much  may  be  deduced  from  the  testimony  of  observers  who 
witnessed  similar  performances  among  modern  uncultivated  races. 
The  learned  Jesuit  Lafitau,  for  instance,  who  wrote  a  remarkable 
work  on  the  North  American  Indians,  among  whom  he  had  lived 
as  a  missionary,  mentions  that  an  Indian  sometimes  spent  his  life- 
time in  making  a  stone  tomahawk,  yet  without  entirely  finishing 
it,  and  that  such  an  implement  descended  as  a  precious  heir-loom 
in  a  family.  This  statement  would  appear  somewhat  exagger- 
ated; but  Mr.  Alfred  Wallace  makes  a  similar  observation  con- 
cerning certain  quartz  cylinders  worn  by  chiefs  on  the  Rio  Negro, 


I^OLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS. 


159 


in  South  America.  The  perforation  of  such  cylinders,  he  remarks, 
is  said  sometimes  to  take  two  men's  lives.*  But  savages  are  ut- 
terly regardless  of  time,  and  so  were  undoubtedly  the  people  of 
the  European  Stone  Age.  It  is  only  civilized  man  that  minds 
the  fleeting  hour. 

Allusion  has  been  made  to  the  stones  on  which  the  lake-men 
of  Switzerland  ground  and  polished  their  celts  and  axes.  Such 
grinding-stones  are  not  rare  in  other  countries  of  Europe,  though 
not  generally  as  characteristic  as  the  stone  here  figured,  which  was 


GBINDING-8TONB. — VARENNE-8AINT-HILAIHB,  FBANCE. 


discovered  in  1860  by  M.  Leguay  at  Varenne-Saint-Hilaire,  in  the 
Department  of  the  Seine.  It  is  an  unwrought  sandstone  slab 
thirteen  inches  thick,  thirty -seven  inches  long,  and  twenty -one 
wide,  and  bearing  on  its  flat  surface  the  cavities  and  grooves 
caused  by  the  operation  of  grinding.  Over  this  slab  of  sand- 
stone bent  the  ancient  celt-maker,  rubbing  on  it  the  rough-hewn 
implement,  forward  and  backward,  until  by  dint  of  hard  labor  it 

*  The  process  consists  in  twirling  a  flexible  leaf-shoot  of  wild  plantain  be- 
tween the  hands,  and  thus  grinding  the  hole  with  the  aid  of  fine  sand  and 
water. 


160  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

slowly  and  gradually  assumed  the  intended  shape;  and,  after 
all  the  toil  bestowed  upon  its  production,  it  was  but  a  wretched 
substitute  for  the  kindred  metallic  tool  of  later  times.  And  yet 
we  would  emphatically  remind  the  reader  that  the  period  during 
which  man  in  Europe  had  to  content  himself  with  implements 
of  stone  undoubtedly  far  exceeds  in  duration  the  comparatively 
short  epoch  characterized  by  the  knowledge  of  metals,  and  that 
the  so-called  historical  age  forms  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  vast 
time  that  has  elapsed  since  man  shared  the  soil  of  Europe  with 
the  extinct  species  of  pachyderms  and  carnivores. 

The  question  to  what  race  or  races  the  men  of  neolithic  times 
and  of  the  Stone  Age  in  general  belonged  is  far  from  being  solved, 
and  forms  at  the  present  time  a  standing  topic  of  discussion  among 
the  savants  of  Europe.  .Both  the  Neanderthal  skull  and  that  of 
the  Engis  cave  present  the  elongated  (or  dolichocephalous)  crani- 
al formation ;  and  the  troglodytes  of  Southern  France,  who  hunt- 
ed the  reindeer  and  the  horse,  likewise  belonged  to  a  long-headed 
race,  if  the  skulls  found  in  the  Cro-Magnon  cave,  and  in  others  to 
which  we  have  not  referred,  are  to  be  taken  as  types.  They  are 
considered  by  some  as  a  people  allied  to  the  Eskimos,  and  we  re- 
member having  read  an  article  in  the  London  Saturday  Review  in 
which  the  absolute  identity  of  the  Dordogne  cave-men  with  the 
Eskimos  was  advocated.  The  reader  will  remember  that  the 
kitchen-middens  of  Denmark  have  yielded  no  human  remains,  but 
that  some  skulls  obtained  from  Danish  megalithic  tumuli,  believed 
to  belong  to  the  same  age,  are  small  and  round  (or  brachycepha- 
lous),  and  remarkable  for  overhanging  brows,  on  the  whole  exhib- 
iting a  formation  somewhat  similar  to  that  observed  in  the  skulls 
of  Laplanders.*    Indeed,  tribes  akin  to  the  Laplanders  and  Finns 

*  Professor  Virchow,  however,  who  measured,  some  years  ago,  in  Copenha- 
en,  skulls  of  Lapps,  Finns,  and  Eskimos,  as  well  as  a  considerable  number  of  ne- 
olithic Stone  Age  skulls,  arrived  at  a  somewhat  different  conclusion.  He  con- 
siders the  Lapps  and  Finns  as  brachycephalous  and  the  Greenland  Eskimos 


NEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS.  161 

are  supposed  by  some  ethnologists  to  have  spread  in  ancient  times 
over  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  until  they  were  gradually  dis- 
possessed by  immigrants  of  Celtic  and  Teutonic  stock.  In  Great 
Britain,  however,  tumuli  resembling  in  construction  those  of  Den- 
mark have  been  found  to  contain  skeletons  of  a  people  with  skulls 
so  long  and  narrow  as  to  suggest  a  resemblance  to  boats;  and  Pro- 
fessor Nilsson  states  that  most  of  the  skulls  met  in  the  Stone  Age 
graves  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  are  also  of  the  elongated 
form.  In  the  oldest  Swiss  lake  settlements  so  few  human  remains 
have  been  found  that  comparatively  little  is  known  of  the  phys- 
ical characteristics  of  their  builders.  The  skull  of  Meilen,  about 
which  much  has  been  said,  presents  a  shape  intermediate  between 
the  long-headed  and  short-headed  types.  Dr.  Keller,  the  restorer, 
as  it  were,  of  the  pile-works,  first  ascribed  these  constructions  to 
a  Celtic  people ;  but  it  appears  that  he  has  of  late  relinquished 
that  view.  Thus  we  meet  in  Europe  at  a  very  early  time  with 
variations  in  the  cranial  structure  of  man — a  circumstance  which 
can  not  be  surprising,  if  all  probable  changes  in  the  population 
arising  from  immigrations  and  intermixing  of  races  during  the 
long  prehistoric  epoch  are  taken  into  consideration ;  and  the  effort 
to  fix  in  these  late  days  the  types  of  primeval  man  appears  like 
an  almost  hopeless  task.  Yet  the  most  distinguished  anthropol- 
ogists of  Europe  devote  all  their  energies  to  the  solution  of  that 
interesting  problem.     May  they  succeed  ! 

Our  series  of  sketches  contains  but  a  scanty  record  of  what 
has  been  done  during  the  last  decades  toward  elucidating  the 
early  condition  of  man  in  Europe.  Avoiding  as  much  as  possi- 
ble the  introduction  of  theories,  we  have  merely  selected  and  pre- 
sented in  proper  succession  a  number  of  facts  particularly  suited 
to  illustrate  the  early  phases  of  human  life  in  Europe.     Our 

as  dolichocephalous,  while  he  discovers  in  the  Danish  skulls  of  the  Stone  Age 
a  formation  lying  between  both  extremes,  though  with  a  tendency  to  brachy- 
cephalism. 

11 


162  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE. 

statements,  however,  will  enable  the  reader  to  draw  the  impor- 
tant conclusion  that  the  earliest  known  condition  of  man  in  Eu- 
rope, as  indicated  by  the  tokens  left  by  him,  must  have  been  one 
of  utter  barbarism,  from  which  he  elevated  himself  slowly  but 
steadily,  during  the  lapse  of  ages,  to  his  present  superior  position. 
Primitive  man  sometimes  has  been  described  as  a  pure  and 
happy  being,  subsisting  without  exertion  on  the  spontaneous  gifts 
of  nature,  and  enjoying  perfect  exemption  from  all  those  ills 
which  have  fallen  to  the  lot  of  later  "  degenerate  "  mortals.  Ovid, 
among  other  poets  of  classical  antiquity,  draws  a  charming  pict- 
ure of  man's  state  during  the  infancy  of  his  existence,  calling 
that  period  the  Golden  Age  of  the  world.  Such  conceptions  of 
primeval  perfection  are  certainly  very  beautiful,  but  they  appear 
utterly  mythical  when  measured  by  the  standard  of  modern  sci- 
ence. The  European  of  the  Drift  Age,  who  fought  with  the  lion 
and  the  bear  for  the  possession  of  a  cave,  can  not  have  been  a 
happy  and  a  morally  perfect  being.  The  extreme  rudeness  of 
his  mode  of  life  precludes  that  possibility :  a  hunter  of  the  low- 
est grade,  he  was  among  men  what  the  carnivorous  beast  is 
among  animals.  We  must  assign  to  him  the  position  of  a  savage, 
but  of  a  savage  as  far  below  the  buffalo -hunting  Pawnee  as  the 
latter  is  removed  from  the  cultivated  representative  of  the  Cau- 
casian race. 

"  This,"  says  Carl  Vogt,  "  was  the  paradisean  state  of  primitive 
man,  as  narrated  to  us  by  those  silent  witnesses,  the  stones  and 
bones.  From  such  a  low  condition  has  the  human  species  gradu- 
ally extricated  itself,  in  a  bitter  struggle  for  existence,  which  it 
was  well  able  to  maintain  by  being  gifted  with  a  larger  amount 
of  brain  and  intelligence  than  that  possessed  by  the  surrounding 
animal  world." 

'  !       THE   END. 


,    VALUABLE  &  INTERESTING  WORKS 

FOR  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  LIBRARIES, 
Published  by  HAKPER  &  BROTHERS,  New  York. 


^^"Far  a  full  List  of  Books  suitabUfor  Libraries,  see  Haspkb  &  Bbothrbs'  Tbadb- 
LiST  and  Catalogue,  which  may  be  had  gratuitously  »n  applicatum  to  th* 
Publishers  personaUt/,  or  by  letter  enclosing  Ten  Cents. 

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SCHWEINFURTH'S  HEART  OF  AFRICA.  The  Heart  of  Africa:  or,  Three 
Years'  Travels  and  Adventures  in  the  Unexplored  Regions  of  the  Centre  of 
Africa.  From  1868  to  18T1.  By  Dr.  Oeobo  Sohweihfubth.  Translated  by  El- 
len E.  Fbeweb.  With  an  Introduction  by  Winwoou  Rease.  Illustrated  by 
about  130  Woodcuts  from  Drawings  made  by  the  Author,  and  with  Two  Maps. 
2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

FLAMMARION'S  ATMOSPHERE  The  Atmosphere.  Translated  from  the  FrencH 
of  Cam  ILLS  Flammabion.  Edited  by  Jamks  Qlaisueb,  F.R.S.,  Snperintendeijt 
of  the  Magnetical  and  Meteorological  Department  of  the  Royal  Observatory  at 
Greenwich.  With  10  Chromo-Lithographs  and  86  Woodcuts.    8vo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

HUDSON'S  HISTORY  OF  JOURNALISM.  Journalism  in  the  United  States,  from 
1690  to  1872.    By  Fbedbbiok  Hudson.    Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

DR.  LIVINGSTONE'S  LAST  JOURNALS.  The  Last  Journals  of  David  Living- 
stone, in  Central  Africa,  from  1866  to  his  Death.  Continued  by  a  Narrative  of 
bis  Last  Moments  and  Sufferings,  obtained  from  his  faithful  Servants  Cbuma 
and  SusL  By  Hobaok  Wallke,  F.R.G.S.,  Rector  of  Twywell,  Northampton. 
With  Maps  and  Illustrations.    8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00.    Popular  Edition,  $2  60. 

SIR  SAMUEL  BAKER'S  ISMAILlA.  Ismailia:  A  Narrative  of  the  Expedition 
to  Central  Africa  for  the  Suppression  of  the  Slave  Trade.  Organized  by  Ismail, 
Khedive  of  Egypt.  By  Sir  Samuel  W.  Bakee,  Pasha,  F.R.S.,  F.R.G.S.  With 
Maps,  Portraits,  and  upward  of  Fifty  foil -page  Illustrations  by  Zwbgkeb  and 
DuBAND.    8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

MYERS'S  REMAINS  OP  LOST  EMPIRES.  Remains  of  Lost  Empires.  Sketches 
of  the  Ruins  of  Palmyra,  Nineveh,  Babylon,  and  Persepolis,  with  some  Notes 
on  India  and  the  Cashmerian  Himalayas.  By  P.  V.  N.  Mtbbs,  A,M.  Dlnstra- 
tions.    Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE  CONFERENCE.  18T3.  History,  Essays,  Orations,  and 
Other  Documents  of  the  Sixth  General  Conference  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance, 
held  in  New  York,  Oct.  2-12, 18T3.  Edited  by  Rev.  Philip  Sohaff,  D.D.,  and 
Rev.  S.  Iben^us  Pbime,  D.D.  With  Portraits  of  Rev.  Messrs.  Pronier,  Carrasco, 
and  Cook,  recently  deceased.    8vo,  Cloth,  nearly  800  pages,  $6  00. 

VINCENT'S  LAND  OF  THE  WHITE  ELEPHANT.  The  Land  of  the  White  Ele- 
phant: Sights  and  Scenes  in  Southeastern  Asia.  A  Personal  Narrative  of 
Travel  and  Adventure  in  Farther  India,  embracing  the  Countries  of  Burma, 
Siam,  Cambodia,  and  Cochin-China  (1871-2).  By  Fbank  Vincent,  Jr.  Mag- 
nificently illustrated  with  Map,  Plans,  and  numerous  Woodcuts.  Crown  8vo, 
Cloth,  $3  60. 

TRISTRAM'S  THE  LAND  OF  MOAB.  The  Result  of  Travels  and  Discoveries  on 
the  East  Side  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan.  By  H.  R  Tbistbam,  M.A., 
LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Master  of  the  Greatham  Hospital,  and  Hon.  Canon  of  Durham. 
With  a  Chapter  on  the  Persian  Palace  of  Mashita,  by  Jas.  Fbbouson,  F.R.S. 
With  Map  and  Illustrations.    Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  50 

v-< 

SANTO  DOMINGO,  Past  and  Present;  with  a  Glance  at  HaytL  By  Samttzi.  Hazabd. 
Maps  and  Illustrations.    Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

SMILES'S  HUGUENOTS  AFTER  THE  REVOCATION.  The  Huguenots  in 
France  after  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Ncntes :  with  a  Visit  to  the  Country 
of  the  Vaudois.    By  Samuel  Smiles.    Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 


2     Harper  6-  Brothers'  Valuable  and  Interesting  Works. 

POETS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  The  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury. Selected  and  Edited  by  the  Kev.  Kobkkt  Aeis  Willmott.  With  English 
*na  American  Additions,  arranged  by  Evert  A.  Ddyckinok,  Editor  of  "Cyclo- 
paedia of  American  Literature."  Comprising  Selections  from  the  Greatest  Au- 
Jhors  of  the  Age.  Superbly  Illustrated  witn  141  Engravings  from  Designs  by 
the  most  Eminent  Artists.  In  elegant  small  4to  form,  printed  on  Superfine 
Tinted  Paper,  richly  bound  in  extra  Cloth,  Beveled,  Gilt  Edges,  $5  00 ;  Half  Calf, 
$5  60 ;  Full  Turkey  Morocco,  $9  00. 
fHE  REVISION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  VERSION  OP  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 
With  an  Introduction  by  the  Rev.  P.  SouAFr,  D.D.  618  pp..  Crown  8vo,  Cloth, 
$3  00. 

This  work  embraces  in  one  volume : 
I.  ON  A  FRESH   REVISION  OF  THE   ENGLISH  NEW  TESTAMENT. 
By  J.  B.  LiGHTFOOT,  D.D.,  Canon  of  St.  Paul's,  and  Hulsean  Professor  of 
Divinity,  Cambridge.    Second  Edition,  Revised.    196  pp. 
II.  ON  THE  AUTHORIZED  VERSION  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  in 
Connection  with  some  Recent  Proposals  for  its  Revision.    By  Riohabu 
Chknevix  Trench,  D.D.,  Archbishop  of  Dublin.    194  pp. 
ni.  CONSIDERATIONS  ON  THE  REVISION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  VERSION 
OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.    By  J.  C.  Ellicott,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Glou- 
cester and  Bristol.    178  pp. 

NORDHOFF'S  CALIFORNIA.  California:  for  Health,  Pleasure,  and  Residence. 
A  Book  for  Travelers  and  Settlers.    Illustrated.    Svo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

NORDHOFF'S  NORTHERN  CALIFORNIA,  OREGON,  AND  THE  SANDWICH 
ISLANDS.    Illustrated.    Svo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

MOTLEY'S  DUTCH  REPUBLIC.  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  By  John  Lo- 
TUEOP  MoTLKY,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.  With  a  Portrait  of  William  of  Orange.  3  vols., 
Svo,  Cloth,  $10  50. 

MOTLEY'S  UNITED  NETHERLAND'S,  History  of  the  United  Netherlands:  from 
the  Death  of  William  the  Silent  to  the  Twelve  Years'  Truce— 1609.  With  a  full 
View  of  the  English-Dutch  Struggle  against  Spain,  and  of  the  Origin  and  De- 
struction of  the  Spanish  Armada.  By  John  Lotueop  Motlet,  LL.D.,  D.C.L. 
Portraits.  4  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $14  00. 
MOTLEY'S  LIFE  AND  DEATH  OF  JOHN  OP  BARNEVELD.  Life  and  Death 
of  John  of  Barneveld,  Advocate  of  Holland.  With  a  View  of  the  Primary 
Causes  and  Movements  of  "  The  Thirty  Years'  War."  By  John  Lotueop  Mot- 
LKT,  D.C.L.    With  Illustrations.    In  Two  Volumes.    Svo,  Cloth,  $7  00. 

HAYDN'S  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES,  relating  to  all  Ages  and  Nations.  For  Uni- 
versal Reference.  Edited  by  Benjamin  Vincent,  Assistant  Secretary  and  Keeper 
of  the  Library  of  the  Royal  institution  of  Great  Britain ;  and  Revised  for  the  Use 
of  American  Readers.    Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00 ;  Sheep,  $6  00. 

MACGREGOR'S  ROB  ROY  ON  THE  JORDAN.  The  Rob  Boy  on  the  Jordan, 
Nile,  Red  Sea,  and  Gennesareth,  &c.  A  Canoe  Cruise  in  Palestine  and  Egrypt, 
and  the  Waters  of  Damascus.  By  J.  Maoqeegob,  M.A.  With  Maps  and  Illus- 
trations.   Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  60. 

WALLACE'S  MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO.  The  Malay  Archipelago :  the  Land  of  the 
Orang-utan  and  the  Bird  of  Paradise.  A  Narrative  of  Travel,  1854-1862.  With 
Studies  of  Man  and  Nature.  By  Alfred  Rubsel  Wallace.  With  Ten  Maps 
and  Fifty-one  Elegant  Illustrations.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  60. 

WHYMPER'S  ALASKA.  Travel  and  Adventure  in  the  Territory  of  Alaska,  for- 
merly Russian  America— now  Ceded  to  the  United  States— and  in  various  other 
parts  of  the  North  Pnciflc  By  Fbbdebiok  Whtmpee.  With  Map  and  Illustra. 
tions.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  60. 

ORTON'S  ANDES  AND  THE  AMAZON.  The  Andes  and  the  Amazon ;  or,  Across 
the  Continent  of  South  America.  By  James  Oeton,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Natural 
History  in  Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  and  Corresponding  Member  of 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia.  With  a  New  Map  of  Equatorial 
America  and  numerous  Illustrations.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

WINCHELL'S  SKETCHES  OP  CREATION.  Sketches  of  Creation :  a  Popular 
View  of  some  of  the  Grand  Conclusions  of  the  Sciences  in  reference  to  the  His- 
tory of  Matter  and  of  Life.  Together  with  a  Statement  of  the  Intimations  of 
Science  respecting  the  Primordial  Condition  and  the  Ultimate  Destiny  of  the 
Earth  and  the  Solar  System.  By  Ai.EXANnEB  Wincheli,,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
G«ology,  Zoology,  and  Botany  in  the  University  of  Michigan,  and  Director  of  the 
Btate  Geological  Survey.    With  Illustrations.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 


Harper  dv  Brothers'  Valuable  and  Interesting  Works.      3 

LOSSING'S  FIELD-BOOK  OP  THE  REVOLUTION.  Pictorial  Field-Book  of  tlie 
Revolution;  or,  Illustrations,  by  Pen  and  Pencil,  of  the  History,  Biography, 
Scenery,  Relics,  and  Traditions  of  the  War  for  Independence.  By  Benson  j! 
L0S8IN0.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $14  00;  Sheep,  $15  00;  Half  CaU;  $18  00-  Fall 
Turkey  Morocco,  $22  00. 

LOSSING'S  FIELD-BOOK  OP  THE  WAR  OF  1812.  Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the 
War  of  1812;  or,  Illnstratious,  by  Pen  and  Pencil,  of  the  History,  Biography, 
Scenery,  Relics,  and  Traditions  of  the  Last  War  for  American  Independence.  By 
Benson  J.  Lossing.  With  several  hundred  Engravings  on  Wood,  by  Lossing  and 
Barritt,  chiefly  from  Original  Sketches  by  the  Author.  1088  pages,  8vo,  Cloth 
$T  00 ;  Sheep,  $8  60 ;  Half  Calf,  $10  00. 

ALFORD'S  GREEK  TESTAMENT.  The  Greek  Testament :  virith  a  critically  revised 
Text ;  a  Digest  of  Various  Readings :  Marginal  References  to  Verbal  and  Idio- 
matic Usage ;  Prolegomena ;  and  a  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary.  For 
the  Use  of  Theological  Students  and  Ministers.  By  Henby  Alfobd,  D.D.,  Dean 
of  Canterbury.  Vol.  I.,  containing  the  Four  Gospels.  944  pages,  8vo,  Cloth, 
$6  00 ;  Sheep,  $6  50. 

ABBOTT'S  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  The  History  of  Frederick  the  Second, 
called  Frederick  the  Great.  By  John  S.  C.  Aiibott.  Elegantly  Illustrated.  Svo, 
Cloth,  $6  00. 

ABBOTT'S  HISTORY  OP  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  The  French  Revolu- 
tion of  1789,  as  viewed  in  the  Light  of  Republican  Institutions.  By  Jobm  S.  C.  Ab- 
bott.   With  100  Engravings.    Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

ABBOTT'S  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE.  The  History  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  By 
John  S.  C.  Abbott.  With  Maps,  Woodcuts,  and  Portraits  on  Steel.  2  vols., 
Svo,  Cloth,  $10  00. 

ABBOTT'S  NAPOLEON  AT  ST.  HELENA ;  or.  Interesting  Anecdotes  and  Remark- 
able  Conversations  of  the  Emperor  during  the  Five  and  a  Half  Years  of  his 
Captivity.  Collected  from  the  Memorials  of  Las  Casas,  O'Meara,  Montholon, 
Antommarchi,  and  others.  By  Joun  S.  C.  Abbott.  With  Illustrations.  Svo, 
Cloth,  $5  00. 

ADDISON'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Joseph  Addison,  embracing  the 
whole  of  the  "Spectator."    Complete  in  3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

ALCOCK'S  JAPAN.  The  Capital  of  the  Tycoon :  a  Narrative  of  a  Three  Years' 
Residence  in  Japan.  By  Sir  Ruthkbfokd  Aloock,  K.C.B.,  Her  Majesty's  Envoy 
Extraordinarvand  Minister  Plenipotentiary  in  Japan.  With  Maps  and  Engravings. 
2  vols.,  ]2mo,'Cloth,  $3  60. 

ALISON'S  HISTORY  OF  EUROPK  Fibst  Seeteb  :  Prom  the  Commencement  of 
the  French  Revolution,  in  1789,  to  the  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  in  1815.  [In 
addition  to  the  Notes  on  Chapter  LXXVI.,  which  correct  the  errors  of  the 
original  work  concerning  the  United  States,  a  copious  Analytical  Index  has  been 
appended  to  this  American  edition.]  Second  Sebieb  :  From  the  Fall  of  Napoleon, 
in  1815,  to  the  Accession  of  Louis  Napoleon,  in  1862.    8  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $16  00. 

BALDWIN'S  PRE-HISTORIC  NATIONS.  Pre-Historic  Nations ;  or.  Inquiries  con- 
cerning some  of  the  Great  Peoples  and  Civilizations  of  Antiquity,  and  their 
Probable  Relation  to  a  still  Older  Civilization  of  the  Ethiopians  or  Cushites  of 
Arabia.  By  John  D.  Baldwin,  Member  of  the  American  Oriental  Society. 
12mo,  Cloth,  $1  76. 

BARTH'S  NORTH  AND  CENTRAL  AFRICA.  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  North 
and  Central  Africa :  being  a  Journal  of  an  Expedition  undertaken  under  the 
Auspices  of  H.  B.  M.'s  Government,  in  the  Years  1849-1855.  By  Henbt  Babtb, 
Ph.D.,  D.C.L.    Illustrated.    3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $12  00. 

HENRY  WARD  BEECHER'S  SERMONS.  Sermons  by  Henby  Wabd  Bkecueb, 
Plymouth  Church,  Brooklyn.  Selected  from  Published  and  Unpublished  Dis- 
courses, and  Revised  by  their  Author.  With  Steel  Portrait.  Complete  in  2  vols., 
Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

LYMAN  BEECHER'S  AUTOBIOGRAPHY,  &o.  Autobiography,  Correspondence, 
&c.,  of  Lyman  Beecher,D.D.  Edited  by  his  Son,  Cuaeles  Beechek.  With  Thre« 
Steel  Portraits,  and  Engravings  on  Wood.    In  2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

DOSWELL'S  JOHNSON.  The  Life  of  Samuel  Johnson.  LL.D.  Including  a  Journey 
to  the  Hebrides.  By  James  Bosweli,,  Esq.  A  New  Edition,  with  numerouf 
Additions  and  Notes.  By  John  Wilson  Csokeb,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  Portrait  of 
BoewelL    2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 


4      Harper  c^  Brothers'  Valuable  and  Interesting  Works. 

DRAPER'S  CIVIL  WAR  History  of  the  American  Civil  War.  By  John  W.  Dba. 
PER,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physiology  in  the  University  of 
New  York.    In  Three  Vols.    8vo,  Cloth,  $3  50  per  vol. 

DRAPER'S  INTELLECTUAL  DEVELOPMENT  OP  EUROPE.  A  History  of  the 
Intellectual  Development  of  Europe.  By  John  W.  Deai>eb,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Profess- 
or of  Chemistry  and  Physiology  in  the  University  of  N.  Y.    (Aew)  Edition  in  Press.) 

DRAPER'S  AMERICAN  CIVIL  POLICY.  Thoughts  on  the  Future  Civil  Policy  of 
America.  By  John  W.  Dbapbb,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physiol- 
ogy in  the  University  of  New  York.    Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

DU  CHAILLU'S  AFRICA.  Explorations  and  Adventures  in  Equatorial  Africa  with 
Accounts  of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  People,  and  of  the  Chase  of  the  Go- 
rilla, the  Crocodile,  Leopard,  Elephant,  Hippopotamus,  and  other  Animals.  By 
Paul  B.  Dn  Chaillu.  Numerous  Illustrations.    8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

BELLOWS'S  OLD  WORLD.  The  Old  World  in  its  New  Face :  Impressions  of  Eu- 
rope in  186T-1868.    By  Henet  W.  Bellows.    2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  80. 

BROD  HEAD'S  HISTORY  OF  NEW  YORK.  History  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
By  John  Romeyn  Bbodhbad.    160^1691.    2  vols.    8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00  per  vol. 

BROUGHAM'S  AUTOBIOGRAPHY.  Life  and  Times  of  Henet,  Loed  Bbougham 
Written  by  Himself.    In  Three  Volumes.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00  per  vol. 

BULWER'S  PROSE  WORKS.  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works  of  Edward  Bulwer. 
Lord  Lytton.    2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

BULWER'S  HORACE.  The  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace.  A  Metrical  Translation 
into  English.  With  Introduction  and  Commentaries.  By  Loed  Lytton.  With 
Latin  Text  from  the  Editions  of  Orelli,  Macleane,  and  Yonge.    12mo,  Cloth,  $1  76. 

BULWER'S  KING  ARTHUR.  A  Poem.  By  Eabl  Lytton.  New  Edition.  12mo, 
Cloth,  $1  75. 

BURNS'S  LIFE  AND  WORKS.  The  Life  and  Works  of  Robert  Boms.  Edited 
by  RoBEBT  Chambbbs.    4  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

REINDEER,  DOGS,  AND  SNOW-SHOES.  A  Journal  of  Siberian  Travel  and  Ex- 
plorations made  in  the  Years  1865-'67.  By  Riohaed  J.  Bush,  late  of  the  Russo- 
American  Telegraph  Expedition.    Illustrated.    Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

CARLYLE'S  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.    History  of  Priedrich  II.,  called  Frederick 
the  Great.     By  Thomas  Cablyle.    Portraits,  Maps,  Plans,  &c.    6  vols.,  12mo, 
■       Cloth,  $12  00. 

CARLYLE'S  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  History  of  the  French  Revolution.  Newly 
Revised  by  the  Author,  with  Index,  &c.    2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

CARLYLE'S  OLIVER  CROMWELL.  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 
With  Elucidations  and  Connecting  Narrative.    2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

CHALMERS'S  POSTHUMOUS  WORKS.  The  Posthumous  Works  of  Dr.  Chalmers. 
Edited  by  his  Son-in-Law,  Rev.  William  Hanna,  LL.D.  Complete  in  9  vols., 
12mo,  Cloth,  $13  50. 

COLERIDGE'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Complete  Works  of  Samuel  Taylor 
Coleridge.  With  an  Introductory  Essay  upon  his  Philosophical  and  Theological 
Opinions.  Edited  by  Professor  Shedd.  Complete  in  Seven  Vols.  With  a  fine 
Portrait.    Small  8vo,  Cloth,  $10  50. 

DOOLITTLE'S  CHINA.  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese :  with  some  Account  of  their  Re- 
ligious, Governmental,  Educational,  and  Business  Customs  and  Opinions.  With 
special  but  not  exclusive  Reference  to  Fuhchau.  By  Rev.  Justus  Doolittlk, 
Fourteen  Years  Member  of  the  Fuhchau  Mission  of  the  American  Board.  Illus- 
trated with  more  than  150  characteristic  Engravings  on  Wood.  1  vol,.  Cr,  8vo, 
Cloth,  $3  50. 

GIBBON'S  ROME.  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  By  Ei»- 
WA»i>  Gibbon.  With  Notes  by  Rev.  H.  H.  Milman  and  M.  Guizot.  A  new  ch«ap 
Edition.  To  which  is  added  a  complete  Index  of  the  whole  Work,  and  a  Portrait 
of  the  Author.    6  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

HAZKN'S  SCHOOL  AND  ARMY  IN  GERMANY  AND  FRANCE.  The  School 
and  the  Army  in  Germany  and  France,  with  a  Diary  of  Siege  Life  at  Versailles. 
By  Brevet  Major-General  W.  B.  Hazbn,  U.S.A.,  Colonel  Sixth  Infantry.  Crown 
8vo,  Cloth,  $2  60. 


Harper  6*  Brothers'  ValuaOle  and  Interesting  Works.      5 

HARPER'S  NEW  CLASSICAL  LIBRARY.    Literal  Translationa. 

The  following  "Volumes  are  now  ready.    Portraits.    12mo,  Cloth,  $1  60  each. 

CiESAS. — VlKQII..  —  SaLLUBT. — HORAOB.— CiCEBO'S  OKATIOMS. — CtOKBO'S  OfPIOES* 

&C. — CioKEO  ON  Oratobt  AND  Oratobs.  — Tacitos  (2  vols.).  —  Tebenck. — 
SopuocLEs. — JuvENAt- — Xenophon. —  Homek's  Iliau. — Homeb's  Odybbey. — 
Hebodotub. — Demostuenes. — Thuotsisks. — ^soHTLns. — £imipn>E8  (2  vols.}. 
— LiTY  (2  vols.) — Plato. 

DAVIS'S  CARTHAGE.  Carthage  and  her  Remains :  being  an  Account  of  the  Exca- 
vations and  Researches  on  the  Site  of  the  Pbcenician  Metropolis  in  Africa  and  other 
adjacent  Places.  Conducted  under  the  Auspices  of  Her  Majesty's  Government. 
Bt  Dr.  Davis,  F.R.G.S.  Profusely  Illustrated  with  Maps,  Woodcuts,  Chromo- 
Lithographs,  &c    8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 

EDGEWORTH'S  (Miss)  NOVELS.  With  Engravings.    10  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $15  00. 

GROTE'S  HISTORY  OP  GREECE    12  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $18  00. 

HELPS'S  SPANISH  CONQUEST.  The  Spanish  Conquest  in  America,  and  its  Rela- 
tion to  the  History  of  Slavery  and  to  the  Gtovemment  of  Colonies.  By  Abthitb 
Helps.    4  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

SALE'S  (Mas.)  WOMAN'S  RECORD.  Woman's  Record ;  or.  Biographical  Sketches 
of  all  Distinguished  Women,  from  the  Creation  to  the  Present  Time.  Arranged 
in  Pour  Eras,  with  Selections  from  Pemale  Writers  of  each  Era.  By  Mrs.  Sabah 
Jobepha  Hale.    Illustrated  with  more  than  200  Portraits.    8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

HALL'S  ARCTIC  RESEARCHES.  Arctic  Researches  and  Life  among  the  Esqni. 
maux:  being  the  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  in  Search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  in 
the  Years  18(50, 1861,  and  1862.  By  Cuableb  Feanoib  Hall.  With  Maps  and  100 
Illustrations.  The  Illustrations  are  from  Original  Drawings  by  Charles  Parsons, 
Henry  L.  Stephens,  Solomon  Eytinge,  W.  S.  L.  Jewett,  and  Granville  Perkins, 
after  Sketches  by  Captain  Hall.    8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

HALLAM'S  CONSTITUTIONAL  HISTORY  OP  ENGLAND,  from  the  Accession  of 
Henry  VIL  to  the  Death  of  George  II.    8vo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

HALLAM'S  LITERATURE.  Introdaction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe  during  the 
Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Seventeenth  Centuries.  By  Hknbt  HALLAif.  2  vols., 
Svo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 

HALLAM'S  MIDDLE  AGES.  State  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  By  Henst 
Hallah.    Svo,  Cloth,  $2  Oa 

HILDRETH'S  HISTORY  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES.  First  Series  :  Prom  the 
First  Settlement  of  the  Country  to  the  Adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
Seoond  Sebies  :  From  the  Adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution  to  the  End  of 
the  Sixteenth  Congress.    6  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $18  00. 

HUME'S  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND.  History  ofEn^and,  from  the  Invasion  of  Ju- 
lius Caesar  to  the  Abdication  of  James  II.,  16S8.  By  David  Humr.  A  new  Edi- 
tion, with  the  Author's  last  Corrections  and  Improvements.  To  which  is  Prefix- 
ed a  short  Account  of  his  Life,  written  by  HimselC  With  a  Portrait  of  the  Au- 
thor.   6  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

JAY'S  WORKS.  Complete  Works  of  Rev.  William  Jay :  comprising  his  Sermons, 
Family  Discourses,  Morning  and  Evening  Exercises  for  every  Day  in  the  Year, 
Family  Prayers,  &c  Author's  enlarged  Edition,  re\'iged.  3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth, 
$6  00. 

JEFFERSON'S  DOMESTIC  LIFE.  The  Domestic  Life  of  Thomas  Jefferson :  com- 
piled from  Family  Letters  and  Reminiscences  by  his  Great-Granddanghter, 
Sarah  N.  Randolph.  With  Illustrations.  Crown  Svo,  Illuminated  Cloth,  Bev- 
eled Edges,  $2  50. 

JOHNSON'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Samuel  Johnson,  LL.D.  With 
an  Essay  on  his  Life  and  Genius,  by  Abthub  Mcrpht,  Esq.  Portrait  of  Johnsoa. 
2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 

KINGLAKE'S  CRIMEAN  WAR.  The  Invasion  of  the  Crimea,  and  an  Account  o\ 
its  Progress  down  to  the  Death  of  Lord  Raglan.  By  Alexander  William  Kmo- 
lakb.     With  Maps  and  Plans.  Three  Vols,  ready.   12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00  per  voL 

KINGSLEVS  WEST  INDIES.  At  Last:  A  Christmas  in  the  West  Indies.  By 
CaiBLES  Kinsblxt.    Illustrated.    12mo,  Cloth,  $1 50i. 


6     Harper  &*  Brothers'  Valuable  and  Interesting  Works. 

KRUMMACHER'S  DAVID,  KING  OF  ISRAEL.  David,  the  King  of  Israel :  a  Por- 
trait drawn  from  Bible  History  and  the  Book  of  Psalms.  By  Fbedkeick  Willi  am 
Krummaoueb,  D.D.,  Author  of  "Elijah  the  Tishbite,"  &c.  Translated  under  the 
express  Sanction  of  the  Author  by  the  Rev.  M.  G.  Easton,  M.A.  With  a  Letter 
from  Dr.  Krummacher  to  his  American  Readers,  and  a  Portrait.  12mo,  Cloth, 
$175. 

LAMB'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Charles  Lamb.  Comprising  his  Let- 
ters, Poems,  Essays  of  Elia,  Essays  upon  Shakspeare,  Hogarth,  &c.,  and  a  Sketch 
of  his  Life,  with  the  Final  Memorials,  by  T.  Noon  Talfoded.  Portrait.  2  vols., 
12mo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

LIVINGSTONE'S  SOUTH  AFRICA-  Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  in  South 
Africa;  including  a  Sketch  of  Sixteen  Years'  Residence  in  the  Interior  of  Africa, 
and  a  Journey  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Loando  on  the  West  Coast ;  thence 
across  the  Continent,  down  the  River  Zambesi,  to  the  Eastern  Ocean.  By  Davip 
Livingstone,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.  With  Portrait,  Maps  by  Arrowsmith,  and  numerous 
Illustrations.    Svo,  Cloth,  $4  50. 

LIVINGSTONES'  ZAMBESL  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Zambesi  and  its 
Tributaries,  and  of  the  Discovery  of  the  Lakes  Shirwa  and  Nyassa.  1868-1864. 
By  David  and  Cuaklbs  Livingstone.  With  Map  and  Illustrations.  8vo,  Cloth, 
$5  00. 

M'CLINTOCK  &  STRONG'S  CYCLOPEDIA.  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical,  Theological, 
and  Ecclesiastical  Literature.  Prepared  by  the  Rev.  John  M'Clintook,  D.D., 
and  James  Stbong,  S.T.D.  6  wis.  now  ready.  Royal  Svo.  Price  per  vol.,  Cloth, 
$5  00  ;  Sheep,  $6  00 ;  Half  Morocco,  $S  00. 

MARCY'S  ARMY  LIFE  ON  THE  BORDER.  Thirty  Years  of  Army  Life  on  the 
Border.  Comprising  Descriptions  of  the  Indian  Nomads  of  the  Plains ;  Explo- 
rations of  New  Territory;  a  Trip  across  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  Winter; 
Descriptions  of  the  Habits  of  Different  Animals  found  in  the  West,  and  the  Meth- 
ods of  Hunting  them ;  with  Incidents  in  the  Life  of  Different  Frontier  Men,  &c., 
&c  By  Brevet  Brigadier-General  R.  B.  Mabcv,  U.S.A.,  Author  of  "The  Prairie 
Traveller."    With  numerous  Illustrations.    Svo,  Cloth,  Beveled  Edges,  $3  00. 

MACAULAY'S  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND.  The  History  of  England  from  the  Ac- 
cession of  James  II.  By  Thomas  Babington  Macaulav.  With  an  Original  Por- 
trait of  the  Author.    5  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $10  00 ;  12mo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

MOSHEIM'S  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY,  Ancient  and  Modem ;  in  which  the 
Rise,  Progress,  and  Variation  of  Church  Power  are  considered  in  their  Connec- 
tion with  the  State  of  Learning  and  Philosophy,  and  the  Political  History  of  En- 
rope  during  that  Period.  Translated,  with  Notes,  &c.,  by  A.  Maclaine,  D.D. 
A  new  Edition,  continued  to  1826,  by  C.  Coote,  LL.D.    2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 

NEVIUS'S  CHINA.  China  and  the  Chinese:  a  General  Description  of  the  Country 
and  its  Inhabitants ;  its  Civilization  and  Form  of  Government;  its  Religions  and 
Social  Institutions ;  its  Intercourse  with  other  Nations ;  and  its  Present  Condition 
and  Prospects.  By  the  Rev.  John  L.  Nsvirs,  Ten  Years  a  Missionary  in  China. 
With  a  Map  and  Illustrations.    12mo,  Cloth,  $1  75. 

THE  DESERT  OF  THE  EXODUS.  Journeys  on  Foot  in  the  Wilderness  of  the 
Forty  Years'  Wanderings ;  undertaken  in  connection  with  the  Ordnance  Survey 
of  Sinai  and  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  By  E.  H.  Palmer,  M.A.,  Lord 
Almoner's  Professor  of  Arabic,  and  Fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
With  Maps  and  numerous  Illustrations  from  Photographs  and  Drawings  taken 
on  the  spot  by  the  Sinai  Survey  Expedition  and  C.  F.  Tyrwhitt  Drake.  Crown 
Svo,  Cloth,  $3  00, 

OLIPHANT'S  CHINA  AND  JAPAN.  Narrative  of  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  Mission  to 
China  and  Japan,  in  the  Years  1857,  '58,  '59.  By  Latirbncb  Oliphant,  Private 
Secretary  to  Lord  Elgin.    Illustrations.    Svo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

OLIPHANT'S  (Mb8.>  LIFE  OF  EDWARD  IRVING.  The  Life  of  Edward  Irving, 
Minister  of  the  National  Scotch  Church,  London.  Illustrated  by  his  Journals  and 
Correspondence.    By  Mrs.  Oliphant.    Portrait.    Svo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

RAWLINSON'S  MANUAL  OP  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  A  Manual  of  Ancient  His- 
tory, from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire.  Comprising 
the  History  of  Chaldsea,  Assyria,  Media,  Babylonia,  Lydia,  Phoenicia,  Syria,  Ju- 
diea,  Egvpt,  Carthage,  Persia,  Greece,  Macedonia,  Parthia,  and  Rome.  By 
Geobge  Rawlinson,  M.  A.,  Camden  Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  60. 


